
f i 






SE 



-xQpy^ 



>;;^^r^U^^^?tVD~ 



•r^.vH 






:\N 



"^ uULlQIfiBS ~ 



\\ 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 

LBTtBf 



Cliap.. -, Copyright No... 

Shelf.J£>-5... 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



THE NEW 

MANUAL AND GUIDE 
FOR TEACHERS 



Containing 

A Complete System of Grading the Public Schools 

IN ALL Departments; 

A Full and Suggestive Course of Study for Elementary Schools; 

Brief Courses of Study for 

Borough, Township, and City High Schools ; 

Practical Hints on the Management of Country Schools ; 

Suggestive Outlines on Methods of Teaching ; 

Matter and Method in Teaching Literature ; 

Books for Pupils at School and at Home, Etc., Etc. 



> /PREPARED BY 

]f mi BERKEY, A. M., 
■J 1 \ 

CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JOHNSTOWN, PA., AND LATE SUPERINTENDENT 

OF SOMERSET COUNTY, PA. 




HARRISBURG, PA. 

R. L. MYERS & CO, 
1899 



^1 

I 



O O ♦-> O «!/ 

Copyright, 1899 
By J. M. BERKEY 










J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg', Pa. 



PREFACE 

The constantly increasing demand for the former edition 
of the Manual and Guide has entirely exhausted the sup- 
ply and made its further publication necessary. In the 
preparation of the new edition, the author has taken the 
opportunity to thoroughly revise the work and to add to it 
a number of new and valuable features. It is no longer a 
manual for the teacher of the elementary district school 
only, but in its enlarged scope and application it will be 
found equally helpful in all grades and departments of the 
city and town schools. As now arranged, its aim is to 
unify elementary school work and to harmonize along es- 
sential lines the advanced or high -school courses of study. 
The principle of uniformity, however, applies only to funda- 
mental requirements common to all school work, while giv- 
ing the widest possible latitude in the choice of text -books, 
methods of teaching, and adaptation to local conditions. 

This Manual is not intended to be an exhaustive 
treatise upon school work and management. It is designed 
rather to be a practical school -room guide for teachers. In 
plan and purpose, it has grown out of an extended and 
varied experience in teaching and school supervision, and 
is, therefore, adapted to the actual conditions, needs, and 
possibilities of our public school system. In the ideas ad- 
vanced, the author does not lay claim to much that is new 
or original in pedagogy. No untried theories are advo- 
cated and no impractical work is presented. The hints and 

(3) 



4 PREFACE 

suggestions as to classification, matter, and method in 
school work are based upon established principles, and 
will, we believe, be recognized as fundamental in the suc- 
cessful management of public schools. 

The system of grading the rural schools is simple, com- 
plete and practicable. Its successful application in more 
than twenty counties in Pennsylvania has already proved 
its worth, and secured for it unqualified endorsement. The 
one -room school is made the basis of grading and outline 
work. Three divisions — Primary, Intermediate, and Ad- 
vanced — mark the distinctive periods or steps in the Ele- 
mentary Course of Study. The first period is devoted 
largely to objective and illustrative teaching, with a very 
limited use of text -books. The second period introduces 
the pupils to a proper use of elementary text -books, and 
contemplates a thorough drill in fundamental forms and 
facts. The third period is given mainly to thought 
development, scientific classification, and correct habits in 
reading and study, the advanced text -books being used 
and completed. The further division into grades is indi- 
cated, but separate grade work is required only in reading 
and arithmetic. In other branches, such combinations or 
divisions of grades may be made as the nature of the 
work will permit or the necessities of the school may re- 
quire. 

While the outlines are specially arranged for one -room 
schools, it will require but slight modifications to adapt the 
course of study to any school of two or more apartments. 
With the suggestions given for special grading, the plan 
as a whole will be applicable to all schools in which the 
elementary branches are taught. The high school courses 
are briefly outlined, and are so arranged as to harmonize 



PREFACE 5 

with each other in successive work as well as with the 
course below the high school. 

The author places special emphasis upon the develop- 
ment of proper reading habits in children, and suggests a 
series of stepping-stones to literature which will lead to 
the reading of good books from choice. No attempt is 
made to give an exhaustive list of selections for study, or 
of books for school libraries. The purpose is rather to 
point out to the thoughtful teacher the lines of literary 
and scholarly development, leaving the choice of books 
and material to those who are in position to know defi- 
nitely the local conditions and needs. 

The Course of Instruction for Rural Schools, as outlined 
by the Committee of Twelve, is appended, not only for the 
valuable suggestions it contains, but also to show that the 
outlines in this Manual are in harmony with its require- 
ments along all essential lines. 

The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable sug- 
gestions received from teachers and school officials, and 
the very favorable reception accorded the former Manual. 
Without any expectation that this little book will rise 
above criticism, but in the hope that it will prove a 
friendly assistant and guide in many a school -room, and 
thus contribute to the substantial improvement of the 
public schools, it is submitted to a generous educational 
public. 

J. M. B. 

Johnstown, Pa., May, 1899. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 

Synopses of Courses of Study — 

Elementary Course for One -room Schools 9 

Elementary Course for Closely Graded Schools 12 

High School Courses for Villages and Small Towns .... 17 

Township High School Course 18 

General High School Course 19 

Management of One -room Schools — 

Eesponsibility of the Teacher 20 

Term Eeports of Grading 21 

Classes and Eecitations 21 

Daily Program 22 

Preparation of Lessons 23 

Study and Recitation Program 24 

Monthly Reports to Parents 26 

Graduation and Diplomas 26 

Grading of Apartment Schools — 

Two-room Schools , 28 

Three-room Schools 29 

Four-room Schools 29 

Schools of Five or More Rooms 30 

The Township High School 30 

Grading of City Schools 31 

Outlines and Methods — 

Primary Division — 

Reading — First Grade 35 

Reading — Second Grade 36 

Spelling 38 

Writing 39 

Language 43 

Arithmetic — First Grade 44 

Arithmetic — Second Grade 47 

Geography 48 

Physiology and Hygiene 50 

History and Literature 53 

(7) 



8 CONTENTS 

Intermediate Division — page 

Reading — Third Grade 55 

Eeading — Fourth Grade 57 

Spelling — Third and Fourth Grades 60 

Writing — General Writing Class 63 

Language — Third Grade 66 

Language — Fourth Grade 69 

Arithmetic— Third Grade 70 

Arithmetic — Fourth Grade 72 

Geography — Third Grade 74 

Geography — Fourth Grade 76 

Physiology and Hygiene 79 

History — Third Grade 80 

History — Fourth Grade 81 

Advanced Division — 

Eeading 83 

Spelling 85 

Writing 86 

Grammar 88 

Arithmetic 91 

Geography 94 

Physiology and Hygiene 97 

History and Civil Government 99 

Literature for Children — 

I. Study of Selections — 

Primary Grades 108 

Intermediate Grades 108 

Grammar Grades 109 

High School Grades . 109 

H. Home Beading — 

Books for Primary Grades 110 

Books for Intermediate Grades Ill 

Books for Grammar and High School Grades Ill, 112 

III. Supplementary Beading — 

In Primary Grades 113 

In Intermediate Grades 114 

In Grammar and High School Grades 115, 116 

Appendix — 

Course of Instructions for Rural Schools, from Report of 

National Committee of Twelve 117 



Synopses of Courses of Study 



Elementary Course of Study — One-Room Schools 
PRIMARY DIVISION -Three Years 



Branches 
OF Study 


FIRST GRADE 


SECOND GRADE 


Reading 


Chart and First Reader. 
Reading from blackboard, 
slates and tablets. Spelling, 
Writing and Language in con- 
nection •with Reading. 


Second Reader, supple- 
mented with books and papers 
of corresponding grade. Short 
selections memorized. Spell- 
ing, Writing and Language, 
with Reading. 


Spelling 


Words from the reading lesson, by sound and letter. Selected 
words from other lessons. Words in common use. Special lists for 
review tests in spelling and pronounciation. Phonic drills and use of 
diacritical marks. 


Writing 


Writing with pencils on ruled slates or paper. Correct forms of 
letters from blackboard copy. Progressive exercises in connection 
with all lessons. Graded seat work. Study and draw simple forms 
and figures. 


Language 


Conversation lessons in class. Require complete statements. 
Use of capital letters, period, and interrogation point. Sentence 
building. Stories read by teacher and reproduced by pupils, first 
orally, later in writing. Composition from objects, pictures and 
stories. Train in correct expression. 


Arithmetic 


Numbers from 1 to 10, with 
combinations and comparisons. 
Reading and writing to 100. 
Objects for class and seat 
work. Meaning and use of 
principal signs. 


Numbers to 20, with combi- 
nations and comparisons. 
Reading and writing to 1,000. 
Drill in simple operations. 
Objective work continued. 
Easy problems. 


Geography 


Observation lessons on home surroundings. Names and uses of 
common trees and plants. Soils, and how plants grow. Descriptions 
from specimens gathered by pupils and teacher. Observation of 
weather. Common occupations and products. Direction, distance, 
cardinal points. Use material in connection with Language. 


Physiology 


Oral lessons about our bodies. How they grow. How injured. 
Principal parts. Uses of food, clothing and shelter. Value of health. 
General effects of stimulants and narcotics. Forming of correct 
habits . 


History 


Historical stories and references, incidentally, or in connection 
with other lessons. Origin and purpose of holidays. Meaning of 
flag. Myths, heroic tales and fables, to cultivate imagination and 
teach moral truths. Use material for language culture. 



o; 



10 SYNOPSES OF COUBSES OF STUDY 

INTERMEDIATE DIVISION — Three Years 



Branches 
OF Study 


THIRD GRADE 


FOURTH GRADE 


Reading 


Third Reader, completed and 
supplemented. Sight reading 
of interesting stories. Selected 
extracts from best authors 
memorized and recited. Spe- 
cial attention to voice culture 
and natural, distinct expression. 


Fourth Reader, supple- 
mented with history stories, 
easy biography, school papers, 
etc. Study a few prominent 
authors. Choice selections for 
recitation and vocal drill. 
Continue sight reading. 


Spelling 


First half of the spelling 
book, or primary speller, com- 
pleted. Meaning and use of 
words. Selected words from 
other lessons. 


Second half of the spelling 
book, or second book begun. 
Phonic exercises. Diacritical 
marks mastered. New_words 
in all lessons. "" 


Writing 


Copy-book, or practice paper, with pen and ink. Drill in free, 
easy movement. Study and analysis of letters, according to adopted 
system. Neat written work in all branches. Some pen and ink 
manuscripts. Drawing and form study continued. Use of models. 
Study and draw nature forms. 


Language 


Oral and written exercises 
to develop thought and expres- 
sion. Stories reproduced. 
Letter writing. Compositions 
from outlines and descriptions. 
Parts of a sentence. Parts 
of speech. Correct common 
errors. 


Elementary language book 
used and completed. Sentence 
building and analysis. Parts 
of speech modified and sub- 
divided. Special attention to 
verb and pronoun forms, punc- 
tuation and letter forms. Con- 
tinue composition from stories, 
descriptions and outlines. 


Arithmetic 


Fundamental operations 
thoroughly mastered. Many 
practical problems analyzed. 
Introduction to fractions and 
-denominate numbers. Elemen- 
tary text-book used, with sup- 
plemental work. Problems of 
farm, store, mill, etc. 


Elementary arithmetic, com- 
pleted and supplemented. 
Drill in factoring, common and 
decimal fractions, denominate 
numbers, vnth applications. 
Analysis of problems. Home 
arithmetic. 


Geography 


Local geography. Study of 
animals and plants. Elemen- 
tary facts and definitions. 
Leading features of county and 
state geography. Drill on out- 
line maps and globes. Prepare 
to use text-book. 


Elementary geography used 
and completed. Special atten- 
tion to physical features and 
productions. Map drawing and 
sketching. Continue drill with 
maps and globe. Compare 
home and foreign products. 


Physiology 


Elementary text-book used and completed. Special attention to hy- 
gienic rules and habits. Nature and effects of disease. Yalue of exer- 
cise, pure air, sleep, sunlight, and wholesome food. Harmful tenden- 
cies of the moderate use of stimulants and narcotics. Use charts, parts 
of animals and blackboard illustrations ; make simple experiments. 


History 


History stories read by 
teacher and reproduced by 
pupils. Interesting facts in 
history. Associate prominent 
men with noted events. Patri- 
otic songs and poems. Prepare 
to use text-book. 


Primary history used and 
completed. Special attention 
to biography of prominent 
men. Patriotic selections 
memorized and recited. Con- 
tinue use of stories and 
national songs. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE— ONE-BOOM SCHOOLS 

ADVANCED DIVISION -Three Years 



11 



Bbanches 
OF Study 


FIFTH GRADE 


Reading 


Fifth Reader for regular class drill. Special attention to articu- 
lation and expression. Frequent exercises in sight reading of cur- 
rent literature. A few classics read and studied in class. Some 
good books read by each pupil. Outlines of English and American 
literature. Short selections in prose and poetry memorized. Home 
reading directed and encouraged. Habitual and methodical use of 
dictionary. 


Spelling 


Review and complete spelling book. Special tests in spelling and 
pronunciation. Thorough drill on words commonly mispronounced 
or misspelled. Difficult words in all lessons. Correct spelling re- 
quired in all manuscript work. Use dictionary. 


Writing 


Continue drill in free and rapid muscular movement with general 
writing class. Written reviews and examinations with pen and ink. 
Practice in letter and business forms. Continue free-hand drawing. 
Elements of perspective. Neat and exact work in all branches. 


Language 


Common school grammar completed. Attention to technical 
forms, analysis, diagrams, parsing, rules of syntax, and punctua- 
tion. Continue sentence building and composition work. Essen- 
tials in correspondence. Principal figures of speech. Develop 
original thought and expression. Frequent reference to elegant 
English. Study and analysis of choice extracts. Paraphrasing. 
Reproduction of descriptions and stories. Develop thought and 
language by free and interesting discussion. 


Arithmetic 


Practical arithmetic completed. Special study of mental arith- 
metic. Supplementary problems for class practice. Special atten- 
tion to accuracy in calculation, clear and independent reasoning, and 
correct arithmetical language. Business forms and problems. Omit 
Circulating Decimals, Circular Exchange, Alligation, Annuities, and 
other impractical subjects. Require full and exact forms and state- 
ments. 


Geography 


Common school geography used and completed. Special attention 
to physical and commercial geography. Study of state and county. 
Use outlines in study and recitation. Continue map drawing and 
sketching. In the study of countries, give prominence to climate, 
vegetation, animal life, minerals, adaptation to man's wants, manu- 
facture, commerce, and social conditions. 


Physiology- 


Complete physiology in two years. Attention to details and scien- 
tific authority. Special study of stimulants and narcotics as to 
sources, forms, uses and effects. Drawings and outlines by pupils. 
Continue lessons in practical hygiene. Teach value of health and 
the importance of preserving it. 


History 


Common school history completed in two years. Civil govern- 
ment — national, state, and local — the third year. Use outlines, 
maps and drawings. Supplement with historical selections, includ- 
ing biography, orations, poems, sketches and stories. Encourage 
pupils to gather historical data from cyclopedias, home histories 
and magazines. Teach the meaning, worth and dignity of true 
citizenship. 



Elementary Course of Study — Closely Graded Schooh 
PRIMARY DEPARTMENT 



Branches 
OF Study 


FIRST GRADE 


SECOND GRADE 


THIRD GRADE 


Reading 


Chart or Primer 
completed, and 
First Reader begun. 
Reading from black- 
board, slates and 
tablets. Natural 
expression devel- 
oped. Memory 
gems. 


First Reader 
completed and sup- 
plemented with 
other first readers. 
Second Reader be- 
gun. Books and 
papers of corre- 
s p n d i n g grade. 
Memory selections. 


Second Reader 
completed and sup- 
plemented with other 
grade readers. Oc- 
casional use of gen- 
eral literature of 
proper grade. Short 
selections memo- 
rized. 


Spelling 


Words from the reading lesson, by sound and letter. Selected 
words from other lessons. Words in common use. Special lists for 
review tests in spelling and pronunciation. Phonic drills, and use 
of diacritical marks. 


Writing 


Writing with pencils on ruled slates or paper. Correct forms of 
letters from blackboard copy. Progressive exercises in connection 
with all lessons. Some pen and ink work in Third Grade. 


Language 


Conversation 
lessons. Oral re- 
production of 
stories. Use of 
capital letters, 
period and interro- 
gation point. Copy- 
ing of short sen- 
tences. 


Oral and written exercises to develop 
ready and correct expression. Stories and 
fables read or told by the teacher and repro- 
duced by the pupils, first orally, afterwards 
in writing. Sentence building. Composi- 
tions from descriptions, journeys, pictures, 
etc. 


Arithmetic 


Numbers from 
1 to 10, with com- 
binations and com- 
parisons. Use of 
objects to illus- 
trate processes. 
Use of principal 
signs. Busy work. 


Numbers from 
1 to 20. Continue 
concrete number 
work. Drill to 
secure accuracy 
and rapidity in 
simple combina- 
tions. 


Numbers to 100. 
Analysis of easy 
problems. Frequent 
drills in simple com- 
binations and opera- 
tions to secure 
rapidity with accu- 
racy. 


Geography 


>3 

X d 
M ® 


Study of animal and plant life common to the child's 
environments. Phenomena of nature. Local occupations and 
products. Direction, distances, cardinal points. City and 
county geography. 


Physiology 


Conversation lessons about the human body and how 
to take care of it. Lessons on cleanliness, neatness, need 
of exercise, food, etc. Lessons on proper position, move- 
ment, morals and manners. Evils of stimulants and narcotics. 


History 


Memory gems from leading poets. Myths, heroic tales, 
and fables, to cultivate imagination and teach moral lessons. 
Origin and purpose of holidays. Meaning of flag. History 
stories. 


Vocal 
Music 


Scale practice, chart exercises and rote songs. Simplest rudi- 
ments of music, with use of musical terms. Drill in correct tone pro- 
duction and recognition. Use of songs adapted to childhood. 
Motion and marching songs and exercises. 


Drawing 


Clay modeling, paper cutting and folding. Study of primary and 
intermediate colors. Free-hand drawings from nature and still life. 
Stories illustrated. Study of simple forms and figures. 



(12) 



ELEMENTARY COUBSE— CLOSELY GRADED SCHOOLS 13 



INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT 



Branches 
OF Stuby 


FOURTH GRADE 


FIFTH GRADE 


SIXTH GRADE 


Reading 


Third Reader 
completed and sup- 
plemented with 
books and papers 
o f corresponding 
grade. Special at- 
tention to distinct 
utterance and nat- 
u r a 1 expression. 
Sight reading ex- 
ercises. Short 
poems memorized 
and recited. 


Fourth Reader 
completed and sup- 
plemented with his- 
tory stories, easy 
biography, and 
children's papers. 
Notice a few prom- 
inent authors, and 
memoiize selec- 
tions and extracts. 


Supplementary 
Fourth Reader for 
class use. Study and 
recite choice selec- 
tions in prose and 
poetry. Continue bi- 
ography and current 
news. Exercises in 
sight reading and 
articulation. 


Spelling 


Spelling book be- 
gun. Lessons se- 
lected and adapted. 
Use and meaning 
of common words. 
Selected words 
from other lessons. 
Oral and written 
exercises. 


The Spelling book continued through the 
two grades. Lessons graded and adapted. 
Selected words from all lessons. Use and 
meaning of words. Frequent drills in phonic 
spelling and diacritical marking. Frequent 
review of difficult words. Make and use 
lists of words frequently misspelled. 


Writing 


Copy-book and practice paper with pen and ink. Drill in free, easy 
movement, and in correct position. Study of correct forms of letters 
according to adopted system. Neat, careful, and exact work required 
in all written exercises. All reviews, examinations and compositions 
with pen and ink. Frequent specimens of best writing. 


Language 


Lessons in Eng- 
lish, with occa- 
sional use of text- 
b o o k. Oral and 
written exercises 
to develop thought 
and expression. 
Reproduction o f 
stories. Composi- 
tions from pictures, 
etc. 


Lessons in Eng- 
lish, with regular 
use of text-book. 
Compositions from 
outlines and de- 
scriptions. Simple 
forms of letter 
writing. Kinds of 
sentences. Parts 
of speech, etc. 


Lessons in English, 
with use of second 
text-book. The sen- 
tence and its parts. 
Parts of speech. 
Composition, punc- 
tuation. Study of 
selections for thought 
and language. 


Arithmetic 


Primary text- 
book for class prac- 
tice. Fundamental 
operations. Inte- 
gers to one million. 
Fractional parts of 
numbers . U S. 
money. Weights 
and measures. 


Elementary arith- 
metic, through frac- 
tions and decimals, 
omitting difficult 
problems. Drill in 
rapid and accurate 
calculation. Oral 
analysis. 


Elementary arith- 
metic completed. Re- 
view fractions and 
decimals. Denomi- 
nate numbers, with 
applications. Supple- 
mentary problems. 
Oral analysis. Drills 
in rapid and accurate 
calculation. 



14 



STJS'OPSUiS OF COUBSES OF STUDF 



INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT- Continued 



Branches 
OF Study 



Geography 



Physiology 



History 



Vocal 
Music 



Drawing 



FOURTH GRADE 



Local geography. 
Occupations of peo- 
ple. Home pro- 
ducts. The factory, 
store, garden, for- 
est, farm. Local 
streams, railroads, 
etc. Facts and 
terms in geography. 
Drill on maps and 
globe. Prepare to 
use text-book. 



FIFTH GRADE 



Elementary geog- 
raphy to South 
America. Supple- 
mentary reading in 
geography. Obser- 
vation of local con- 
ditions. Use of 
maps and globe. 
Map sketching. 



SIXTH GRADE 



Elementary geogra- 
phy completed. Spe- 
cial attention to phys- 
ical features, pro- 
ductions, and state 
geography. Map 
drawing and sketch- 
ing. 



Oral lessons, with occasional use of text- 
book. Special attention to hygienic rules 
and habits. Nature and effects of disease. 
Value of exercise, pure air, sleep, sunlight, 
and wholesome food. Harmful tendencies 
of the moderate use of stimulants and nar- 
cotics. Use charts, parts of animals, black- 
board illustrations, and simple experi- 
ments. 



Oral instruction, with supplementary 
reading in history. History stories read 
by teacher and reproduced by pupils. In- 
teresting facts in history. Associate prom- 
inent men with noted events. Patriotic 
songs and poems. Prepare to use text- 
book. 



Elementary physi- 
ology used regularly. 
Special emphasis 
upon healthful con- 
ditions of living. 
Correct use of physi- 
ological terms. 



Primary history 
used and completed. 
Special attention to 
biography of promi- 
nent men. Patriotic 
selections memorized 
and recited. National 
colors, songs and hol- 
idays. 



Musical drills and exercises to cultivate 
the voice and to train the ear in the recog- 
nition of correct tones. Use book for ex- 
tended exercises and songs. Popular songs 
and melodies. One-part music only. 



Music book with 
two-part music. Ex- 
ercises for drill. 
Selected songs, for 
beauty of sentiment 
as well as melody. 
Popular patriotic 
songs. Familiar 
hymns. 



Free-hand drawing and sketching. Occasional use of drawing 
books. Drawing from observation, from memory, from imagination. 
Use of carefully drawn illustrations in connection with other 
branches. Study and history of a few great artists and their best 
productions. Study of color. Paper cutting, folding and pasting. 



ELEMENTARY COURSE— CLOSELY GRADED SCHOOLS 15 



GRAMMAR DEPARTMENT 



Branches 
OF Study 


SEVENTH GRADE 


EIGHTH GRADE 


NINTH GRADE 


Reading 


Grammar school 
reader for regular 
class drill. Use of 
dictionary. Voice 
culture. Sight read- 
ing of children's 
classics. Study of 
easy selections 
from best authors. 
Memory exercises. 


Selections from 
American authors 
for class reading. 
Drill in expression. 
Study prominent 
authors, and recite 
short selections. 
Special attention 
to home reading. 


Selections from 
English authors read 
and studied in class. 
Gems in prose and 
poetry memorized. 
Sight reading of cur- 
rent literature. Home 
reading directed and 
encouraged. 


Spelling 


Spelling book 
completed. Dia- 
critics mastered. 
Pupils use diction- 
aries. Oral and 
written exercises. 
Correct manuscript 
spelling. 


Tests in spelling 
and pronuncia- 
tion. Drill on 
words frequently 
misspelled. Diffi- 
cult words in all 
lessons. Abbrevia- 
tions and contrac- 
tions. 


Correct spelling re- 
quired in all manu- 
script work. Occa- 
sional tests. Notice 
the spelling of diffi- 
cult words in all les- 
sons. 


1 
Writing 


Writing taught in 
all manuscript 
work. Copy-book 
for occasional use. 
Development of in- 
dividual handwrit- 
ing. Pencil tablets 
for regular work. 


Letter and busi- 
ness forms. Fre- 
quent specimens of 
best writing re- 
quired. General 
use of pen and ink. 
Pencil tablets. 


Elements of book- 
keeping. Special 
business forms. Es- 
sentials of corre- 
spondence. Use of 
blank-book for spe- 
cial forms. Pencil 
tablets. 


Language 


Lessons in Eng- 
lish, with elemen- 
tary grammar. 
Parts of speech 
subdivided and 
modified. Letter 
writing. Composi- 
tion. Study of se- 
lections. 


English gram- 
mar. Forms and 
construction o f 
sentences. Inflec- 
tion. Composi- 
tions. Study of 
selections. 


English grammar 
completed. Syntax. 
Analysis and parsing. 
Compositions. Study 
of selections. Ele- 
ments of rhetoric. 


Arithmetic 


Grammar school 
arithmetic to per- 
centage, omitting 
difficult examples 
in book. Many 
supplementary 
problems for drill. 
Selected lessons 
and problems in 
mental arithmetic. 


Grammar school 
arithmetic to evo- 
lution. Review 
preceding sections 
by using difficult 
problems. Corre- 
sponding sections in 
mental arithmetic. 


Grammar school 
arithmetic completed 
and reviewed. Men- 
tal arithmetic com- 
pleted. Use of sup- 
plementary problems 
for review and drill. 
Elements of geome- 
try. 



16 



srifopsus OF coursj:s of study 



GRAMMAR DEPARTMENT — Continued 



Branches 
OF Study 


SEVENTH GRADE 


EIGHTH GRADE 


NINTH GRADE 


Geography 


Grammar school 
geography through 
United States. Spe- 
cial attention to 
physical and com- 
mercial geography. 
Continue map 
drawing. 


Grammar school 
geography com- 
pleted. Frequent 
use of maps and 
globe. Use of 
outlines in study 
and recitation. 
Composition work 
in connection with 
geography lessons. 


Review essential 
features of mathe- 
matical and political 
geography. Special 
study of physical and 
commercial features. 
State and county 
geography. 


Physiology 


Grammar school 
physiology begun. 
Essentials of 
health. Thorough 
study of text-book. 
Application of 
physiological prin- 
ciples in all hygi- 
enic rules and 
habits. 


Grammar school 
physiology c o m - 
pleted. Attention 
to details and scien- 
tific authorities. 
Special study of 
stimulants and nar- 
cotics. Experi- 
ments and illustra- 
tions. 


t-i 
Xi 
V 
byO 

< 


First steps in 
algebra. Ele- 
mentary work 
in funda- 
mental opera- 
tions, factoring, 
fractions, and 
simple equa- 
tions. 


History 


United States 
history to constitu- 
tional period. Spe- 
cial attention to 
biography, histor- 
ical maps, and 
outlines. 


United States 
history completed. 
Attention to histor- 
ical orations, 
poems, songs, 
monuments, etc. 
Use topical out- 
lines in study and 
recitation. 


General review of 
United States history, 
with special reference 
to the evolution of 
government. E 1 e - 
ments of civil gov- 
ernment. State his- 
tory and government. 


Music 


Regular instruc- 
tion and drill. Two- 
part music. Fre- 
quent use of popu- 
lar songs and 
hymns. 


Regular instruc- 
tion and drill. Two- 
and three - part 
music. Special 
chorus drills. Use 
of songs. 


Regular instruction 
and drill. Two- and 
three - part music. 
Special chorus drills. 
Instrumental accom- 
paniment. 


Drawing 


Regular instruc- 
tion. Use of draw- 
ing books. Exer- 
cises in construc- 
tion and represen- 
tation. Optional 
work. 


Regular instruc- 
tion, with use of 
drawing books. 
Use of instruments 
in working draw- 
ings. Study of his- 
toric art. 


Work of previous 
year continued. 
Study of art. Study 
of a few masterpieces 
of art. Special or 
optional work. 



High School Courses of Study — For Villages 
and Small Towns 





PREPARATORY YEAR 


COMPLETING YEAR 


One-year 
Course 


Reading and Spelling com- 
pleted. Outline study of litera- 
ture. Grammar. Arithmetic. 
Geography completed. TJ. S. 
History completed. Physiology 
completed. First steps in 
Algebra. 


Literature : Reading of clas- 
sics. Grammar: Elements of 
Rhetoric. Arithmetic supple- 
mented. Civil Government. 
Algebra to quadratics. Busi- 
ness Forms. 




PREPARATORY 
YEAR 


FIRST YEAR 


SECOND YEAR 


Two-year 
Course 


(Same as in one- 
year course.) 


American litera- 
ture. Grammar 
completed. Arith- 
metic completed. 
Civil Government 
completed. A 1 g e- 
bra to quadratics. 
Physical Geography 
completed. 


English litera- 
ture : Readings. 
Rhetoric completed. 
Elementary Algebra 
completed. Brief 
course in general his- 
tory. Bookkeeping. 
Elementary Physics. 




PREPARATORY 
AND FIRST YEARS 


SECOND YEAR 


THIRD YEAR 


Three-year 
Course 


(Same as in two- 
year course.) 


English litera- 
ture. Rhetoric 
completed. Gen- 
eral history be- 
gun. Algebra com- 
pleted. Bookkeep- 
ing. First lessons 
in Latin. 


Study of selections 
in literature. Gen- 
eral history com- 
pleted. Plane Geom- 
etry. Natural Phi- 
losophy. Latin — 
Caesar. Elements of 
Botany. 



Practical lessons in Drawing, Vocal Music, and Physical Culture 
should be given with each course. 

The Preparatory Year should take the place of the last year of 
the Elementary Course. 

Under proper conditions, the One-year Course may be used and 
completed in schools of three or four rooms, having a seven- or eight- 
months' term. The Two-year Course may be used and completed in 
schools having from five to eight rooms and a school term of seven or 
eight months. The Three-year Course may be completed in schools 
having ten or more rooms and a school term of eight or nine months. 

Pupils of average ability ought to complete the One -year Course 
at 16 years of age; the Two-year Course at 16 or 17; the Three-year 
Course at 17 or 18. 

(17) 



Township High School Course of Study 





FIRST YEAR 


SECOND YEAR 


Two-year 
Course 


Reading of selections from 
American literature. Grammar, 
with Elements of Rhetoric. 
Advanced arithmetic and Busi- 
ness Forms. Algebra to Quad- 
ratics. Physical Geography. State 
history and civil government. 


Reading of selections from 
English literature. Rhetoric 
and composition. Elementary 
Algebra Completed. Brief 
Course in general history. 
Bookkeeping and business cor- 
respondence. Botany, with spe- 
cial study of local flora. 




FIRST YEAR 


SECOND YEAR 


THIRD YEAR 


Three-year 
Course 


Same as in the 
two-year course. 


Same as in the 
two - year course, 
with Latin added. 


Reading and study 
of selected classics. 
Composition, Plane 
Geometry and Men- 
suration. English 
History. Elemen- 
ary Physics. Latin, 
four books of Caesar, 
Elementary Chemis- 
try, with Chemistry 
of Soils. 




FIRST AND 
SECOND YEARS 


THIRD YEAR 


FOURTH YEAR 


Four-year 
Course 


Same as in the 
three-year course. 


Reading and 
study of selections. 
Composition. Plane 
Geometry. English 
History. Ele- 
mentary Physics. 
Chemistry. Latin, 
four books of 
Csesar. 


Reading and study 
of classics, with re- 
view of advanced 
Grammar. Trigonom- 
etry and Plane Sur- 
veying. Latin, Cicero 
or Virgil. American 
History and Civics. 
Chemistry of Soils. 
Zoology, including 
Entomology. 



Practical lessons in Drawing, Vocal Music and Reading should 
be given with each course. 

In districts where the central high school is drawn from a limited 
number of elementary schools, the two- or three -year courses may 
have a preparatory year's work in the high school. This preparatory 
work should be essentially the last year of the Elementary Course. 

In large township high schools, optional courses may be arranged, 
as in the larger towns and cities. 



(18) 



General High School Course of Study 



Departments 


FIRST YEAR 


SECOND YEAR 


THIRD YEAR 


FOURTH YEAR 


Higher 
Knglish 


Advanced 
grammar. Study 
and analysis of 
selections. Study 
and practice in 
oral expression. 


Rhetoric, with 
applications. 
Reading and 
study of classic 
selections. Exer- 
cises in expres- 
sion. 


American Lit- 
erature. History 
and study of se- 
lections. Compo- 
sition and oral 
exercises. 


English Litera- 
t u r e . Critical 
study of selec- 
tions. Composi- 
tion. Exercises 
to cultivate oral 
expression. 


Mathe- 
matics 


Elementary Al- 
g e b r a (having 
been previously 
studied one year) 
completed. 


Plane Geometry 
with practical 
applications. 


Solid Geometry 
and Trigonom- 
etry. 

Commercial 
Arithmetic. 


Higher Arith- 
metic 
Higher Algebra. 
Trigonometry. 


Sciences 


Elementary 
Geology. Special 
study of local 
formations. 


Physical Geog- 
raphy, with re- 
lated commercial 
geography. 


Natural Phi- 
losophy, with 
laboratory ex- 
periments. 

Chemistry, 
Psychology. 


Botany, Physi- 
ology. 

Pedagogy; Re- 
view of geog- 
raphy. 


History 


English H i s - 
tory. 
Reading of 

Norse mythology. 


Ancient His- 
tory. 

Reading of 
Greek and Roman 
mythology. 


Mediaeval and 
Modern History. 

Commer cial 
Law. 


Civil Govern- 
ment with review 
of American His- 
tory. 

Greek and Bo- 
man History. 

History of Edu- 
cation. 


Lfanguages 


Latin lessons. 
Latin reader 
and grammar. 


Latin. — Four 
books of Caesar's 
Commentaries. 


Latin.— Select 
orations of 
Cicero. 

Greek, Ger- 
man, French. 


Latin.— Virgil's 
uEneid. 

Greek, German, 
French. 


Arts 


Drawing.— Two 
lessons a week by 
special instruc- 
tor. 

Vocal Music— 
Daily exercises. 


Drawing.— Two 
lessons a week by 
special instruc- 
tor. 

Vocal Music— 
Daily exercises. 


Special lines in 
Advanced Draio- 
ing and Music. 

Bookkeeping 
and Business 
Forms. 


Special lines in 
Advanced Draw- 
ing and Music. 

B\o okke eping, 
with Business 
Practice. Ste- 
nography and 
Typeioriting. 



In the above outline the Regular or Standard Course is printed in 
Eoman; elective studies in Italic. After the first two years, students 
may choose a Commercial, a College Preparatory, or a Normal Course. 

In the arrangement of a daily program, no student should have less 
than three, nor more than five recitations, exclusive of Music and 
Drawing. 



(19) 



Management of One -Room Schools 

THE common school branches as outlined in this Manual 
constitute the complete Course of Study for the ordi- 
nary one-room schools. 

Responsibility of the Teacher. — Under the present 
system of school supervision in Pennsylvania, the work of 
grading these schools is left almost entirely in the hands 
of the individual teachers. They may receive some assist- 
ance from directors and superintendent, yet they themselves 
must determine and maintain the standard of scholarship 
for each grade. Their success in this direction will be 
measured by the impartial and thorough grading of the 
entire school, rather than by the number of pupils promoted 
to succeeding grades during any one term. So far as pos 
sible, the Course of Study should be closely followed, and, 
if need be, supplemented, rather than made lighter. Care- 
ful and thorough work should be required of each grade; 
and while too much should not be expected or required of 
children, yet great care should be taken that they do not 
advance more rapidly in the Course than their attainments 
will justify. 

The grades should be kept separate and distinct, so far as 
possible. This requirement, however, does not conflict with 
the combination of different grades in class work in cer- 
tain branches. Such combinations are necessary in country 
schools. Reading and Arithmetic are the grade branches, 
and the pupil's ability to read and to comprehend, with 
his power to think and to reason, should determine the 
grade to which he belongs. His work in other branches 
should be kept parallel with these, so far as practicable. 

Such examinations should be held from time to time in 

(20) 



CLASSUS AND BECITATI0N8 21 

each grade as will serve not only for general review, but 
also as tests of progress and class standing. 

Term Reports of Grading".— Upon beginning a term 
of school, every teacher needs a comprehensive and accurate 
record of the work accomplished by the school under his 
predecessor, so that due credit may be given for what has 
already been done and the proper connection made with 
what shall follow. 

A suitable term -report blank, therefore, adapted to the 
Course of Study, should be sent to each teacher near the 
close of the school term. This report, when properly made, 
would show a complete record of the work and the grade 
standing of each pupil in attendance, and recommend such 
promotions as are deemed advisable. The report should 
also contain such general information concerning the man- 
agement of the school as will be of practical benefit to the 
succeeding teacher. Immediately after the close of the 
school, this completed report should be sent to the County 
Superintendent, who, after examining it, should provide 
for its return to the proper board of directors, by whom it 
should be placed in the hands of the newly elected teacher. 

CLASSES AND RECITATIONS 

The following is an approximate outline of the classifi- 
cation and daily work of one -room schools, as indicated by 
the Course of Study: 

Reading". — Five classes; seven recitations. The First 
Grade and the Second Grade each two recitations, combin- 
ing Spelling, Writing, and Language. The Third, Fourth, 
and Fifth Grades each one recitation. 

Spelling".— Two classes ; two recitations. 

Writing". — One general writing class and one period. 

Lang'uag'e.— Three classes (two with text-books) ; three 
recitations. 



22 MANAGEMENT OF ONE -BOOM SCHOOLS 

Arithmetic. — Four classes (three with text-books); four 
recitations. 

Geography. — Two classes ; two recitations. 
History. — Two classes ; two recitations. 
Physiolog"y. — Two classes ; two recitations. 

Beading and Arithmetic are the distinctive grade branches. All 
grades should have daily and separate recitations in both. Mental 
Arithmetic may alternate or be combined with Written Arithmetic in the 
Fifth Grade. As far as possible, the same subject should be studied 
from both books coordinately. 

The Fourth and Fifth Grades may be combined in Spelling with 
separate exercises in advanced work once or twice a week for the Fifth 
Grade. 

The oral Language indicated for the Third Grade may be combined 
with the Reading and Spelling recitations. 

Oral Geography, History, and Physiology for the Primary Division 
may be combined in one daily recitation, giving each branch due 
prominence in successive recitations. 

In the Third Grade, oral Geography and History lessons may be 

combined or may alternate in daily recitations. Well -advanced pupils 

in this grade may join with the Fourth Grade, and use text-books. 

Drawing lessons may be given once or twice a week in place of 
Writing. 

In large schools, Physiology and History classes in the Fourth and 
Fifth Grades may recite upon alternate days. It is better, however, to 
have all classes recite daily, if the program can be so arranged with- 
out crowding. 

A DAILY PROGRAM 

OPENING EXERCISES AT 9 O'CLOCK 

Geography Fifth Grade 

Reading and Language First and Second Grades 

Arithmetic Tlvird, Fourth and Fifth Grades 

RECESS, 10 MINUTES — 10:30 

Numbers First and Second Grades 

Reading and Language Third Grade 

Geography Fourth Grade 

Reading and Literature Fifth Grade 

Writing or Drawing All Grades 



TEE PBUPABATION OF LESSONS 23 

NOON RECESS, 12 O'CLOCK — ONE HOUR 

Singing. 

Language Fourth Ch-ade 

Spelling Third Grade 

Reading and Spelling First and Second Grades 

Grammar Fifth G^-ade 

History Fourth and Fifth Grades 

RECESS, 10 MINUTES — 2:30 

Geography or History Tliird Grade 

Reading Fourth Grade 

General Lessons First and Second Grades 

Physiology Tliird and Fourth Gh-ades 

Physiology Fifth Gh-ade 

Spelling Fourth and Fifth Grades 

GENERAL INSTRUCTION 

This program is arranged to meet the full requirements 
of the Course of Study, and provides for all the classes 
and recitations suggested for one -room schools. It is in- 
tended, however, to be suggestive merely. Each teacher 
will make such changes as will adapt it to the needs and 
conditions of his school. 

THE PREPARATION OF LESSONS 

The proper regulation and direction of seat work in the 
preparation of lessons is of equal importance to the recita- 
tion program. Every school should have a study program, 
which should indicate, in a general way, the work to be 
done by each division or grade during each recitation period 
throughout the day. This will secure well-prepared lessons, 
and prove a most potent aid in the discipline of the school. 

It is not assumed that the Study and Recitation Program 
here given can be used as a whole in any school ; but from 
the plan submitted the teacher will be able to see the essential 
principles involved, and from them construct his own program. 



STUDY AND RECITATION PROGRAM 

(The Recitations are indicated by Boldface Type) 



a o 


s ^ 

o 


PRIMARY DIVISION 


INTERM. DIV. 


ADVANCED DIV. 


OPENING EXERCISES 


20 m, 


9:20 


Slate work from blackboard. 


Referred work in 
Arithmetic. 


Geography. 


20 m. 


9:40 


Readin£r> Spelling, and 
Language. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


25 m. 


10:05 


Writing, Sentence building 
on slate or tablet. 


Arithmetic. 


Arithmetic. 


25 m. 


10:30 


Number work with objects. 
Slate work. 


Referred Language 
work. 


Arithmetic. 


10 m. 


10:40 


FORENOON RECESS 


20 m. 


11:00 


Number Lesson. 


Reading. 

Geography. 


History. 


25 m. 


11:25 


Busy work; grouping objects. 
Problems. 


Reading and Lan- 
guage. 

Geography. 

Spelling. 

Language. 


Reading and Litera- 
ture. 


20 m. 


11:45 


Drawing ; paper cutting or 
folding. Slate work. 


Reading and Lit- 
erature. 


15 m 


12:00 


Writing or Drawing. 


Writing or Draw- 
ing. 


Writing or Draw- 
ing. 


60m. 


1:00 


NOON RECESS 






SINGING 


20 m. 


1:20 


Slate work from blackboard 
copy. Write reading lesson. 


Language. 

Spelling. 


Grammar. 


20 m. 


1:40 


Reading, Spelling, and 
Language. 


Spelling. 


Grammar. 


20 m. 


2:00 


Language work on slate or 
tablet. 


Reading— History, 


Grammar. 


30 m. 


2:30 


Busy work, with forms and 
colors. Slate exercises. 


History. 

Referred work. 

Reading. 


History. 


10 m. 


2:40 


AFTERNOON RECESS 


20 m. 


3:00 


Silent reading. Composition 
work outlined on black- 
board. 


Geography or His- 
tory. 

Reading. 


Spelling. 


15 m. 


3:15 


Geography, Physiology, 
or History. 


Physiology. 


Physiology. 


30 m. 


3:45 


Busy work. Referred work. 
Copy reading lesson. 


Physiology. 

Spelling. 


Physiology. 


15 m. 


4:00 


Excused from school. 


Spelling-. 


Spelling. 






GENERAL INSTRUCTION 



(24) 



THE PBEPABATION OF LESSONS 25 

It will be observed that in this schedule of work the 
Primary Division has four regular class exercises, the Inter- 
mediate Division has five and six, and the Advanced Di- 
vision seven, exclusive of the general writing class. This 
does not give any one division too much class work ; but 
sub -divisions for distinctive grade work may result in too 
mauy class recitations for the teacher. Grades should have 
separate work in the grade branches — Reading and Arith- 
metic — and the divisions should be separate in all other 
branches in which elementary and advanced text -books are 
used. While home study is to be encouraged and required, 
the study program should allow a definite period for the 
final preparation of each lesson. Pupils should be required 
to prepare the lessons at the time indicated unless other- 
wise directed. After this has been done, other work may 
be taken up. 

The Primary Division may include a chart class and 
two reading classes, or all may be combined in two grades. 
In either case, the period should be divided among the 
several classes. The recitations should be short and spir- 
ited. The two -grade work for the Intermediate Division is 
indicated by the relative position of the branches of study. 
Those to the left of the column are for the Third Grade 
and those to the right for the Fourth Grade. 

No time is indicated for Opening Exercises, Singing, and 
General Instruction. These, however important, do not re- 
quire any great length of time, and every program should 
be sufiiciently flexible to allow a short period for all such 
general exercises without hurrying through them and with- 
out interfering with any class recitation. Any period on 
the program may occasionally be used for special exercises 
or a general drill. No one branch, however, should be 
slighted through such temporary changes. It is well, also, 
for the teacher to use a few minutes after each recitation 



26 MANAGEMENT OF ONE -BOOM SCHOOLS 

period to regulate and direct the seat work, provide writing 
material, give needed individual help, and hear and answer 
special requests, which should be permitted only at such 
intervals. The care and thoroughness with which these 
things are done will determine very largely the effective- 
ness of class instruction, and save valuable time and energy 
otherwise spent in maintaining proper discipline. 

On Friday afternoon, the last two periods may be used 
for general exercises previously announced and prepared. 

MONTHLY REPORTS TO PARENTS 

Every teacher should seek and encourage home coope- 
ration and support. This may be secured, in a measure at 
least, by the use of monthly reports from the teacher to 
parents, showing the progress of the pupils. These reports 
should be simple, accurate, and impartial. They should 
show the pupil's grade, attendance, punctuality, deport- 
ment, application to study, and his class work in the 
several branches upon some convenient scale, as 100. The 
parents or guardians should be asked to examine and sign 
the reports each month, and see that they are promptly 
returned to the teacher. At the close of the term they 
should be left with the pupils. In case of removal to a 
new district, they will serve as a convenient means in 
determining the pupil's grade and assignment of work. 

GRADUATION AND DIPLOMAS 

When pupils complete a regularly adopted course of 
study, they should be granted diplomas as certificates of 
scholarship. This should apply to the elementary as well 
as to the high schools, and will be quite as effective in 



GRADUATION AND DIPLOMAS 27 

the rural districts as in the towns and cities. A diploma 
or certificate of scholarship of any kind, however, should 
simply be a recognition of work done to the extent of the 
completed course of study. Under proper restrictions and 
regulations, it will serve not only as a reward of merit, 
but at the same time prove a helpful stimulus to all pupils 
in securing regular and continued attendance, earnest work, 
and higher attainments. 



Grading of Apartment Schools 

BOROUGH and country schools of two or more apart- 
ments have practically the same work to do in the 
elementary branches as is outlined in this Manual 
for one -room schools. The grading differs only in the 
closer classification of pupils and the subdivisions of 
grade work. The amount of work required of each grade 
must be determined by the number of rooms, the length of 
term, the relative number of pupils in the several apart- 
ments, and the amount of special or high school work to 
be done. 

The following suggestions will apply to most schools of 
the number of rooms indicated : 

Two-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have the 
First, Second and Third Grades. The First Grade may 
be subdivided in Reading and Arithmetic, and the Third 
Grade in Arithmetic, Language, and Geography. Elemen- 
tary text -books in Geography and Language may be intro- 
duced during the last year of the Third Grade by those 
who are to be promoted at the close of the term. Such 
text -books are to be used as supplementary only to the 
work in hand, and are to be used regularly in the next 
room. The Third Grade may use pen and ink. 

The Second Boom should^ have the Fourth and Fifth 
Grades, with two classes in Arithmetic and Grammar for 
the Fifth Grade. The Elementary Course should be fully 
completed and supplemented during the last year by ad- 
vanced work in Arithmetic and Grammar, and the ele- 
ments of Rhetoric, Civil Government, Literature, and Physical 
Geography. The high school text -books, however, should 
be used for reference only — seldom as regular text-books. 

(28) 



GRADING OF APARTMENT SCHOOLS 29 

Three-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have 
the Primary Division, with two regular classes in the First 
Grade, and two classes in Language, Reading, and Arith- 
metic in the Second Grade. No text -books but the readers 
should be used, but two or more series should be provided. 
No pen and ink work should be required. 

The Second Boom should have the Intermediate Division. 
The Third and Fourth Grades should be separate in all 
class exercises except writing. The Fourth Grade may be 
subdivided in Language, Arithmetic, and Geography. Ele- 
mentary text -books only should be used in this room. 

The Third Boom should have all of the Fifth Grade, 
using and completing the one -year High School Course, 
special text -books to be used in Literature, Civil Govern- 
ment, and Algebra. Two regular classes should be formed 
in all branches except Writing and Spelling, and the higher 
class subdivided in Arithmetic, Algebra, and Grammar. 

Four-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have 
the First Grade in two regular classes and one class of 
the Second Grade. 

The Second Boom should have the advanced class of the 
Second Grade and all of the Third Grade. The Third 
Grade may be divided in Arithmetic and Language. 

The Third Boom should have all of the Fourth Grade 
and two regular classes in all grade work. Under favora- 
ble conditions some Fifth Grade work may be done in this 
room, using the larger text -books in Geography, Arithme- 
tic, and Physiology. 

The Fourth Boom should complete the Fifth Grade work, 
and supplement, if possible, the one- year High School Course. 
Separate text -books may be used in Algebra, Rhetoric, Civil 
Government, and Literature. Physical Geography may be 
added to the Course. Essentially the same classification should 
be made as in the third room of the three -apartment schools. 



30 GRADING OF APABTMJSNT SCHOOLS 

Schools of Five or More Rooms. — Each room should 
have two distinct grades, with possibly three classes in the 
lowest primary room. The rooms should be designated by 
the grade of work done, as Primary, Intermediate, and 
Grammar. The grammar grades should do the work of 
the Advanced Department of the Elementary Course of Study. 
Schools of eight or more rooms should have a supervising 
principal or superintendent, and one or more assistants in 
high school work. The course of study for the High 
School Department must be determined by the length of 
the school term, the number of rooms, the facilities for 
work, and the ability and needs of pupils. 

The several courses of study for high schools, outlined 
elsewhere in this Manual, have passed the test of success- 
ful application, and are believed to meet the practical 
needs of public high schools. But as schools, like indi- 
viduals, may have special aims and peculiar environ- 
ments, so these courses of study may be modified to meet 
local conditions and special requirements. 

THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 

The Township High School is yet in the formative 
period, and the course of study for such a school has, in 
but few instances, been definitely formulated. The work 
in these rural high schools, however, is practically the 
same as in the larger apartment or town schools, except 
in so far as the work in them is specially adapted to rural 
or agricultural demands. In grading, management and super- 
vision, it is essentially the same as the borough or town 
high school, and is the legitimate outgrowth of the properly 
graded country school. The course of study outlined for 
these schools will be found in harmony with the law which 
provides for them, and in general accord with a number of 
such schools already established throughout the state. 



6BADIN0 OF CITY SCHOOLS 31 

GRADING OF CITY SCHOOLS 

In outlining a course of study for city schools, nine 
distinct steps or grades are provided for. This does not 
necessarily mean nine years of successive grade work for 
all pupils. The work assigned to each grade is about as 
much as can be well done by the pupils of average ability 
during a term of nine or ten months. But as each grade 
may be subdivided into groups or classes, bright and 
industrious pupils may readily pass from the advanced 
division of any grade to the weaker division of a higher 
grade, and, again pushing to the front in the new grade, 
may thus gain a year, or even two years, on the regular 
classes. None need thus be kept marMng time, while all 
must do the work well to secure advancement. 

The regular promotions should be made at the close of 
the school term, and based upon the teacher's estimate of 
the daily class work of pupils, together with their record 
in the monthly reviews given at different times by teacher, 
principal, and superintendent. Regular attendance, faithful 
study, and good work are thus given full credit in each 
individual case ; while those who are irregular, or indif- 
ferent to their studies will necessarily fall behind their 
classes, and probably fail of promotion. 

Pupils who fail in the regular promotions should be 
permitted to apply for a special examination, with a view 
to immediate promotion, at any time during the first month 
of the succeeding term. Proper recognition will thus be 
given to special study and instruction during the va- 
cation. 

Special promotions, however, should be possible at any 
time. Whenever a pupil does exceptionally good work in 
any grade, and at the same time shows a capacity for 
doing with ease more work than the grade requires, the 



32 GBADING OF CITT SCHOOLS 

teacher should recommend, and the superintendent or 
principal examine, for promotion to a higher grade. 

The General High School Course, as outlined in this 
Manual, constitutes the essential basis of all advanced 
culture and instruction. This course, however, may be 
modified and supplemented by special courses, in order to 
meet as fully as possible the varied and practical needs 
of advanced students. All who enter the high school may 
be classed as regular students ; but during the last two 
years each pupil may determine either to continue the 
General Course, or to follow special lines as a full 
equivalent. 

As a matter of course, these special departments in 
high school work can be organized only as the number 
of students for each shall justify the formation of classes 
without requiring too large a teaching force. 



Outlines and Methods 



SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 

IN THE APPLICATION of the Course of Study found in the follow- 
ing pages, let discretion be your guide. The outlines indicate 
the work to be done, and the suggestions are offered as aids to 
its performance. They are hints to good methods, but are not 
in any sense mandatory. You will be held responsible for,results only; 
and with the rightful privilege of independent thought and method and 
work, you are at liberty to use any or all methods at your command. 
The only requirement is that you do the loorTc itwll. 

The aim in the following outline is that of adaptation and gradual 
development, requiring in every department the constant and intelli- 
gent use of knowledge as the necessary condition of true progress. It 
is the daily drill and work of the school room rather than the hearing 
of lessons which mark good teaching. "We learn to do by doing," is 
a fundamental principle in all educational work. If you would have 
your pupils attain correct habits, practical skill, and thought power, 
you must require an intelligent use of pen, pencil, and crayon, and 
supplement all written work by the necessary oral instruction and 
drill. The progress of pupils can be measured, not by pages and 
paragraphs, but by their ability for independent thought and work, 
and their growing interest in the acquisition and use of knowledge. 
Although they may be able to read a text-book, it does not follow that 
they should use it. Text-book study in every grade, and especially in 
all elementary work, should be studiously limited to the general require- 
ments of the course, and every effort put forth to make thorough and 
practical what has been learned. This point needs especial emphasis, 
because of the constant tendency on the part of pupils to go beyond 
their ability and needs in text-book work, and also because of the 
necessity on the part of the teacher to use supplemental material for 
illustration and practice, for thought and drill, by which alone this 
tendency may be counteracted, the school kept true to its purposes, and 
its legitimate results attained. 

While the use of text-books by your pupils is limited in every 
grade, you will need many helps to supply material for daily work. 

C (33) 



34 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

No teacher in the common schools can be expected to develop any 
subject to any great degree without the assistance of some comprehen- 
sive outline from which to draw the material for each day's work. 
And this material, elaborated by the teacher's thought and skill, will 
make every lesson new, interesting, and practical. So many helpful 
books in this line are now published that every teacher who feels the 
need of such helps can readily secure them. The Primary Grades 
require especial attention, since the pupils cannot use text-books, and 
yet need carefully graded lessons to lead up to the proper use of books. 
If possible, have at your command a variety of text-books and manuals 
for all grades and classes, from which to get the necessary assistance. 
The Course of Study may be at variance with the present condition 
of your school. It is not expected, however, that you will make any 
sudden or radical changes, and least of all such as would invite discord 
or call forth opposition. But with prudent compromise, bring your 
school work gradually yet speedily into harmony with the general 
requirements of the Course. Then, following it, your work will be 
greatly simplified and made more effective and satisfactory. Of course, 
you will be yourself in this work, and every suggestion in the following 
pages must pass your careful criticism and meet your personal approval 
before it is carried into effect. It is to be hoped, moreover, that all 
who use this Manual will have the professional zeal to find out what is 
good a7id the moral courage to use the best they hnow. 



PRIMARY DIVISION 

AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 
TEXT-BOOKS — First and Second Readers. 

APPARATUS — Blackboard, Slate, Tablet, Pencils, Rule, Sponge, 
Charts, Material for Object Teaching. 

READING — First Grade 

Begin with simple words in the children's spoken 
vocabulary. Teach them to recognize at sight the written 
and printed forms of these words, and to pronounce them 
readily as wholes. Introduce words already learned into 
short and interesting sentences. As a rule, select words to 
be taught from the chart and reader to be used later. Give 
frequent drill in finding words qtiicMy on chart and black- 
board, and in pronouncing them readily. The words a and 
the should usually be pronounced as parts of the succeeding 
words. Do not teach pupils to pronounce them separately. 
Phrases should be pronounced almost as single words. Let 
good spoken language be the guide in reading. Do not 
allow pupils to drawl. From the start, try to have them 
get a mental picture of what they read. Aim to develop 
a ready, natural expression. Do not allow the "word by 
word pointing" in reading a sentence. Let the words in 
the sentence first be mastered, and then the thought, with 
its proper expression, taught as a unit. 

Do not hurry. Let each step be thoroughly mastered 
and frequently reviewed. 

In these first lessons in reading, a good blackboard is 
essential. A modern reading chart is helpful, but should 
be used as supplemental only to the blackboard work. 
ALfter two or three months' preparatory work, the reader 

(35) 



36 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

may be brought into regular use. If the pupils have been 
properly taught, they will now be able to read a number 
of pages of the First Reader at sight. Do not, however, 
allow them to read a lesson from the book until they have 
mastered every word in that lesson by means of blackboard 
drill. Give frequent exercises in reading sentences and 
short stories from the blackboard. As they advance, these 
may afterwards be reproduced by the pupils and read from 
slate or tablet. It is well to use the first parts of several 
First Readers before completing any one book. 

When pupils have fairly well mastered the words, the 
thought expression, the spelling, and the phonic elements 
of words, as found in the First Reader or Readers, they 
will be prepared to take up the next number of the series. 

Where a so-called special method of teaching reading 
has been adopted, it should, of course, be followed by the 
teacher ; but in its application, the foregoing suggestions 
will be found applicable, because they constitute the essen- 
tial factors in learning to read, whatever name may be 
applied to the method used. 

The synthetic element in the process of teaching reading 
is necessarily a part of these first lessons. Word -building, 
however, whether by sound or by letter, is treated under 
the head of spelling. But in school -room practice, word 
and letter forms and values must be taught together, and 
in such a way as to make them mutual helps in the mastery 
of thought getting and thought expression. 

READING — Second Grade 

In introducing the Second Reader, malie haste slowly. 
Many new words must be learned. These are usually found 
at the head of the lesson, and may often afford enough 
material for a complete recitation. Teach these new words 



PBIMABT DIVISION 37 

SO that pupils will know them at sight, pronounce them 
correctly, and know what they mean. 

In order to bring all new words before the whole class, 
write them upon the board. To teach pupils to know them 
at sight, point rapidly from one word to another. To teach 
the meaning of the words, require pupils to use them in 
good sentences. These sentences should be both oral and 
written. To secure correct and distinct pronunciation, the 
teacher must give the correct utterance, and .then drill until 
all faulty enunciation is overcome. 

The chief object of the reading exercise is to get 
thought from the printed page and to give to it proper 
expression. - 

To be sure that pupils get the thought, question them 
thoroughly on what they read. The skillful teacher will 
not read very much for imitation, but will aim to make 
the thought clear in the minds of the pupils and then 
have them tell it. The force and meaning of grammatical 
pauses may be taught, but it is not necessary to teach 
that the voice should be sustained at a comma and fall 
at a period. Aim simply at naturalness and spontaneous 
expression. Show pupils how to prepare a lesson, and, if 
necessary, help in its preparation. 

Pupils of this grade need supplementary reading. This, 
as a rule, should be somewhat more simple than their 
regular lessons. School papers, leaflets, story books, read- 
ing cards, and readers of other series can generally be 
secured by the thoughtful, active teacher. Provide for 
occasional practice in sight reading of interesting stories, 
allowing the book to pass from one pupil to another, each 
reading to entertain and interest the class as a whole. Let 
pupils tell the story read. Let the teacher frequently read 
fables and short stories to the class, to be reproduced 
orally and in writing. 



38 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

Let pupils memorize short selections to be recited 
before the class, occasionally before the school. These 
selections may be taken from the reader, or from any 
source not more difficult than the reader. Encourage the 
children to find suitable selections. The teacher, however, 
should determine, finally, the material to be used. 

Two or more Second Readers of different series are 
very desirable for regular class use by this grade. 

SPELLING 

In the Primary Division, spelling should be taught in 
connection with the reading lessons. After the pupils have 
learned a limited number of words as wholes, they must 
learn the parts of the words. Letters have /orm- names 
and sound -ndimQ^, both of which the pupils must know 
to enable them to read, write and spell. Spelling in both 
First and Second Grades should be by sound and by 
letter, both oral and written. 

Begin by taking some short word, pronounce it slowly 
and distinctly, and prolong each sound until the word is 
separated into its elements. Let the pupil pronounce the 
word while the teacher sounds the letters. Practice upon 
one word until the pupil can make the sounds in that 
word, before taking up another. Do not hurry. After 
one word has been mastered, take up words of similar 
sounds, as man, can, ran ; cat, rat, sat. 

The sounds of certain letters may be more effectively 
taught by associating such sounds with objects or animals 
familiar to the pupil. Thus, the buzzing bee suggests the 
sound of z; the puff of a locomotive, the sound of cli ; 
the dog's growl, the sound of r; etc. 

Certain letters are so frequently found combined in words 
that they form families ; such as at, acJc, ing, le, ng, etc. 



PBIMABY DIVISION 39 

Each diacriticar mark should be taught as it occurs in 
the reader, and within six months the pupils should be able 
to give the long and short sounds of the vowels, with their 
diacritical marks, and to indicate silent letters by a slant- 
ing line drawn through them. 

Phonic drill is more important than spelling by letter, 
for it is the essential means in learning new words and 
the basis of distinct utterance. 

No separate spelling book should be used in the Pri- 
mary Division, for the readers will furnish sufficient book 
material for both oral and written spelling. Have pupils 
spell the new words at the head of the reading lessons ; 
also the important words in the text. Make frequent lists 
of words for review tests. Spell many words in common 
use. 

When pupils do not Icnow the spelling of a word, do 
not allow them to guess at it. Have them study the correct 
form until the word picture is impressed upon their minds, 
and then have them reproduce it orally and in writing. 
Review frequently all difficult words, or such as have once 
been misspelled. Avoid calling attention to wrong forms. 

WRITING 

Children should be supplied with slates and pencils from 
their first day at school. Slates should be ruled or 
scratched permanently on one side. Pencils should be 
kept long and well sharpened. 

The first lessons should consist of familiar words and 
short sentences written on the blackboard for the pupils to 
copy on slates. Rule slates with full scale at the top, 
spaces about three - sixteenths of an inch wide ; below this, 
alternate spaces of three-eighths and three -sixteenths of an 
inch wide. Let the teacher use similar lines on the black- 



40 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

board, the spaces being alternately four inches and two 
inches wide. 

Vertical writing, now coming into general use, requires, 
as a rule, very few guide lines. With most systems, the 
single base line will be found sufficient, even for the 
youngest pupils. Vertical writing, however, should be most 
carefully and exactly taught according to some standard 
system, or else it should not be attempted at all. Standard 
forms only should be taught, and optional forms should not 
be permitted until the pupil has mastered thoroughly the 
uniform standard letters. 

In common school -work, Writing is quite as impor- 
tant as any other branch of study, and should be as 
carefully developed. 

Paper work is preferable to the use of the slate ; but 
because of the greater expense of the exclusive use of 
paper and pencil in the primary schools, slates are used in 
nearly all cases. Good results, however, may be obtained 
by using both paper and slates. Teachers will do well to 
ask for noiseless slates, properly ruled. The best slates 
for primary work are such as are permanently ruled, and 
yet have a perfectly smooth surface. Such are now manu- 
factured, and can readily be secured. Where the scoring 
of slates is objected to, let pupils be taught how to draw 
straight and parallel lines with the ruler. Teach holding 
of the pencil and position of the body with care. Do not 
require much writing the first year, but always expect and 
recognize neat, careful work. Require each pupil to do 
his best every day. Commend wherever you can, but allow 
no slovenly work. 

As pupils advance they should learn to make the capital 
letters, and to use them in writing proper names and in 
beginning a sentence. The letters, both small and capital, 
should be placed upon the blackboard for constant refer- 



PBIMABY DIVISION 41 

ence and copy. Teach proper spacing between letters and 
words. See that letters are placed evenly upon the base 
line, and are of the proper relative height. Let the teacher 
use and require the script form of writing only. 

The tablet, now made in so many convenient forms, 
should be brought into frequent use. Let pupils write 
words from the reading lesson, copy paragraphs, w^ite sen- 
tences and short compositions, arithmetical tables, etc., 
using the detached leaf for class use, or for the teacher's 
careful inspection. Preserve exercises for samples of good 
work and as evidences of improvement. 

A copy-book for pencil practice may be used by the 
Second Grade, but is not essential. 

Let there be a definite purpose in every written exercise. 
Do not assign work simply to keep pupils busy. Require 
such work as will have a bearing upon the lessons of the 
day, and which will develop skill and power with each suc- 
ceeding effort. 

Do not allow pupils to write in a careless manner. 
Bad habits, once formed, are hard to correct. 

Drawing". — Children will learn to write in less time if 
they are taught drawing and writing at the same time than 
when taught writing alone. Pestalozzi said: "Without 
drawing there can be no writing." Drawing is not an 
accomplishment merely, but a means of culture which 
should find a place in every school-room. 

The practice of drawing on slates, paper, and black- 
board should be given with the exercises of the Primary 
Grades, not only as a means of supplying a pleasant and 
interesting variety to the school employment of pupils, but 
as a most valuable mode of training the eye in accuracy 
of comparing and the hand in skill of representing objects. 
It develops habits of observation, attention, accuracy, and 
neatness, and trains in general intelligence by bringing the 



42 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

child in contact with the type forms of nature and art. The 
work in drawing, like all other exercises for this grade, should 
begin with the simplest forms. The teacher should place the 
forms upon the blackboard for the pupils to copy, and should, 
therefore, herself be skillful in the use of crayon and pencil. 

First lessons may be given by having pupils make dots 
on slate or blackboard and then connect these points by 
straight lines. These may be so placed as to form triangles, 
squares, oblongs, etc. Divide lines into two, three, or four 
parts. Draw lines in different positions, as horizontal, ver- 
tical, oblique, parallel, etc. Draw different figures with 
three, four, or five straight lines. 

Encourage children to draw something original. The 
teacher, however, should be careful to direct the work to 
be done, otherwise pupils will soon fall into an idle, aim- 
less, and, perhaps, noisy use of the pencil and slate. 

Form-Study and Color. — Lessons in form -study and 
color may be given in connection with drawing. Use such 
models as the sphere, cube, cylinder, circle, oblong, and 
square ; teach names, and study surface, corners, edges, etc. 
Teach the primary and secondary colors. Use colored paper, 
clay, sticks, blocks, colored splints, etc. 

Care should be taken that these exercises are always 
made short and interesting, so that they do not come to 
be regarded as tasks. 

The suggestions relative to Drawing are intended only 
for the teacher whose course of study does not call specially 
for the teaching of this subject. In schools where Draw- 
ing is a regular part of the curriculum, a special system is 
adopted, and usually a special supervisor is employed to 
give specific instructions and directions. In recognition, 
however, of the practical value of the simple elements of 
the subject, it is given recognition in all common school 
work, and a place in this Manual. 



PBIMABY DIVISION 43 

LANGUAGE 

Language and thought grow side by side throughout 
school life. Expression in some form is necessarily a part 
of all school work, but is especially developed by oral and 
written language exercises. The chief object is to cultivate 
the power of ready and correct expression in talking and in 
writing. 

Much of the language work for the Primary Division 
may be done in connection with the reading lessons. First 
lessons should be largely oral, but as pupils advance con- 
siderable written work should be required. 

Encourage children to talk, and lead them to make full 
statements in answering questions. Do not have them to 
repeat your language, but seek to develop original expres- 
sion. Have the pupils make grammatical sentences about 
familiar objects, to use given words in sentences, to supply 
words in given sentences. As soon as pupils begin to read 
from a book, let them talk about what they have read. 
Tell short, easy stories, and have them reproduced. Teach 
in conversational style the forms and uses of is and are, 
was and were, has and have, go and went, see and saw, huy 
and bought, etc. Teach objectively, and by pictures made 
by pupils, the meaning of over, under, behind, before, top, 
bottom, etc. Correct common errors in speech by calling 
attention to correct forms of expression and having pupils 
repeat them many times. 

Train until correct expression becomes habitual. 

As soon as pupils can write, let them copy daily the 
blackboard exercises in reading. These should be neatly 
and carefully written, that the pupils may have a correct 
copy. Do not allow them to print; it is a waste of time. 
When further advanced in writing, let them copy the read- 
ing lessons and write short original sentences. Read or 



44 OdTLINUS AND METHODS 

tell short stories to be reproduced in writing. Build sen- 
tences from given words, and complete given sentences, as 
in the oral work. 

Teach the use of capital letters in beginning a sentence, 
in proper names, the pronoun J, and the exclamation 0. 
Teach the use of the period and the interrogation point. 
Have pupils copy paragraphs or stanzas from the reader, 
for the purpose of formal accuracy in the use of capital 
letters, punctuation, spelling and language. 

Teach correct use of I and you, Mr. and Mrs.; to, too, 
and two, their and there, know and no, buy and hy, write 
and right, hear and here, etc. 

Give picture lessons, and have pupils write what they 
see in these pictures. Let them write brief descriptions of 
pets, games, occupations, etc. 

In this Division no technical or grammatical terms need 
be introduced. In the Second Grade, nouns may be taught 
as "name -words" and verbs as "action -words." 

The language exercises should be carefully graded as 
the pupils advance. 

ARITHMETIC -First Grade 

Teach combinations and comparisons of numbers from 
1 to 10 ; notation and numeration to 100 ; fundamental 
operations, in which sums, minuends, products, and divi- 
dends do not exceed 20. Roman notation to X. 

In teaching numbers to 10, develop : 

(a) The recognition of groups of objects to 10. 

(h) Counting to 10 without objects. 

(c) Making figures to 10. 

{d) Combinations to 10 with objects. 

(e) Combinations to 10 without objects. 

Count by twos, threes, fours and fives, and train pupils 



PBIMABT DIVISION 45 

to recognize promptly groups consisting of two, three or 
four things. 

Teach the signs, -f, — , X, -^, =, and their language — 
plus, minus, multiplied by, divided by, and equals. Make 
simple problems involving fundamental operations. 

Develop number tables, and have pupils copy and after- 
ward reproduce them ; thus : 

5+2=7 5—2=3 5X2=10 10^2=5 
3+2=5 4—2=2 . 2X2= 4 4^2=2 

etc. etc. etc. etc. 

Make tables, leaving blanks for pupils to fill ; thus : 
5X3=? 4—2=? 5X( )=15. ( )-^3=2. Construct con- 
crete problems involving similar conditions. 

Develop the idea of one -half. If 2 times 4 are 8, then 
4 is one -half of 8, or i of 8=4. Make tables and problems. 

Teach, objectively, the linear inch, the linear foot, the 
pint, the quart, the cent, the nickel, the dime ; the number 
of inches in a foot, pints in a quart, cents in a nickel, 
nickels in a dime. 

Teach multiplication and division tables of the twos 
and threes. 

In the first lessons in number work, find out first what 
pupils know, and then build upon that knowledge. Pupils 
in this grade necessarily develop very slowly in their grasp 
of number ; therefore, do not hurry them. Do a little 
every day, but let that little be simple, definite, thoroughly 
mastered, and carefully graded for steady progress. 

Use Objects. — Numeral frame, corn, pebbles, beans, 
shoe pegs, toothpicks, acorns, etc. Use pictures, and count 
objects represented. Use slates for drawing lines, making 
dots, triangles, squares, flags, and circles to represent 
number, combinations and comparisons of number. Teach 
the children many ways of picturing number, and train 
them to tell number stories (little problems) about their 



46 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

pictures. Break or cut the objects, to give pupils clear 
ideas of simple fractions. Many fine and interesting exer- 
cises can be made by using splints or sticks of different 
colors and lengths to make diagrams, which may after- 
ward be drawn on the slates. Do not begin the use of 
figures until the idea of the number and its oral sign 
are thoroughly learned. 

Group Numbers. — In teaching each number, give special 
attention to grouping of objects. Arrange groups of twos, 
threes, fours, fives, etc. Count by groups, using objects 
— without using objects. Show how easily numbers may 
be grouped into tens, thus facilitating their addition, thus : 
3 + 7+5 + 5+4 + 6 = 3 times 10. Much work along this 
line may be done in the Second Grade. 

Secure first accuracy, then rapidity. 

Memory Work. — It is all -important that pupils shall 
learn, as a matter of memory, all possible combinations and 
separations of number from 1 to 10, so that the sum, pro- 
duct, difference, and quotient will be given as accurately 
and as readily as the key of the piano gives back the 
proper tone to the skilled touch. This work should begin 
with this grade and be completed by the Second Grade. 
Each teacher will use her own devices, doubtless ; but the 
end in view is to give pupils such a ready grasp of these 
simple operations as to bring them into conscious memory 
as soon as the numbers are named. Under any method 
this will require skillful teaching and much drill. 

At every step, oral and written work should go hand in 
hand. Let the oral and the concrete lead to the written 
and the abstract. 



PBIMABT DIVISION 



47 



ARITHMETIC — Second Grade 

Continue exercises as indicated for the First Grade. 

Read and write numbers to 1,000 ; Roman notation to L. 

Have pupils thoroughly master and memorize all pos- 
sible operations in numbers from 1 to 10. Omitting the 
ones, there are thirty -six of these in each of the four fun- 
damental rules. The following table presents a complete 
list of the combinations in addition and multiplication. From 
the resulting sums and products the operations in subtraction 
and division, respectively, may readily be deduced : 



8 


7 


6 


5 


9 


8 


7 


6 


3 


8 


7 


6 


2 


3 


4 


5 


2 


3 


4 


5 


9 


4 


5 


6 


9 


8 


7 


9 


8 


7 


9 


7 


9 


8 


9 


9 


4 


5 


6 


5 


6 


7 


6 


8 


7 


8 


8 


9 



Make many concrete problems growing out of these 
operations ; thus : 

If there are 7 clays in one week, how many days are 
there in 6 weeks f 

Let pupils give short solutions to these questions, using 
correct arithmetical language. Frequently let them simply 
give results. 

From statements like the following let the pupils pre- 
pare on slates or paper practical problems ; thus : 

$8 + $7 = ? 

I paid $8 for a larrel of flour and $7 for a barrel of 
oil ; how much did I pay for both f 



48 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

As pupils advance, make the work more difficult, and 
combine operations. Do not, however, ask pupils to work 
with numbers which they cannot readily read, write, and 
comprehend. Develop first steps in reasoning by problems 
such as these : 

If a boy Ms 6 cents in one pocket and 3 times as many 
in another pocket, how many cents has he in both pockets f 

Rotv much will 12 apples cost, if 3 apples cost 9 cents f 

Count forward and backward to 100 by twos, threes, 
fours, etc., beginning with each number from 1 to 9. 

Let pupils make and repeat tables in the fundamental 
rules. Let the entire class drill upon the same exercise at 
one time. Make and use "number -clocks" for recreation 
in rapid memory work. Occasionally let pupils enjoy the 
old-time "cross -questions" at the close of a class exercise. 

Teach simple fractions objectively. Teach i of an apple; 
then i of a number. Develop i, i, |, f, I, i, f, etc.; in 
the same way make problems involving small fractions. 

Let mental grasp, accuracy, and rapidity be the aim 
of every lesson. 

Teach coins of United States money, and how to make 
change below one dollar. If possible, use actual money. 
Teach time-table, and how to tell time by^he clock. All 
of dry measure ; table of linear measure to yard ; number 
of ounces in a pound. Make easy problems. 

Pupils in the Second Grade do not need any text -books 
in Arithmetic. 

GEOGRAPHY 

Lessons in Geography for the Primary Division should 
be largely in the form of conversational exercises, in which 
the pupils are permitted and encouraged to talk freely. 
Much of the work should become the basis of the language 



PBIMABY DIVISION 49 

exercises, and may be done in connection with reading. 
Whenever it is practicable, however, let separate lessons 
be given frequently. Let the home surroundings be made 
the basis for this work. 

Teach names and uses of common trees and plants. 
Let pupils gather autumn leaves, fruits, bark, buds, seeds, 
flowers, for class study. Tell about the planted seed, the 
growing plant, the ripe fruit. What the rain and the 
sunshine do for plants. 

During the spring months, let seeds be planted in small 
boxes, or placed in bottles partly filled with water. As the 
seeds develop into plants, the children will be interested 
in the process of germination. Small twigs from fruit 
trees may also be used in this way, and the premature , 

development of fruit blossoms may be made a most inter- rA 

esting study. Study forms of leaves, and teach recognition *'"| 

of common trees by the leaves, bark, wood, etc. 

Find nature myths and stories to tell to children in ^} 

connection with these lessons. ^ 

Talk about domestic animals, common wild animals, 
kindness to animals. The caterpillar, cocoon, and butter- 
fly may be used as material for object lessons. Uses of 
domestic animals ; uses of wild animals ; names and habits 
of birds ; when birds come ; where they go in winter ; 
home pets ; stories of animals. ^-Jp 

Talk about soil and how plants grow, uses of roots in 
plants, uses of rocks, where rocks and stones are found, 
how soil is formed, how the three kingdoms depend on 
one another. 

Give descriptions from specimens, to interest and to 
promote accurate observation. 

Teach observations of the weather, rain and snow, frost 
and dew, clouds, the blue sky, winds and storms, sunset 
and sunrise, the sun and the moon. 

D 



50 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

Teach pupils actual direction, as east, west, north, and 
south. Let these directions be determined from the center 
of the school-room. Teach direction of public roads leading 
from the school -house. Draw map of the school-room ; of 
the school -ground. Give them some idea of distance, and 
estimate distances within the pupil's knowledge. Teach 
name of township or town, county, and state. Talk about 
products of farms, mines, factories, etc. Teach shape of the 
earth by use of globe. Tell pupils facts in natural history. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

Hyg'ienic Conditions.— Children may be taught the 
laws of health by example and by practice better than by 
precept. School -houses should be made as healthful and 
as attractive as a well-ordered home. Each school-room 
should be kept clean, comfortably warm, and well ventilated. 
It should be furnished with a wash-stand, bowl and pitcher, 
soap and towel, comb, and looking-glass. The supply of 
water for all purposes should be abundant and pure. 

Children should be early impressed with the fact that 
cleanliness, both of person and clothing, is essential to 
lasting health and beauty. They should be taught that 
certain habits injure the health, and that the use of alcohol 
and tobacco injures both body and mind. The teacher 
should endeavor to have her pupils conform their habits to 
the instruction she gives. 

Look after the ventilation of the school-room, and, if 
possible, provide other means than open windows. Venti- 
late thoroughly during recess or exercise time. 

Do not permit pupils to sit in wet clothing or with 
damp feet. 

Do not keep small children too closely confined to a 
sitting position. 



PBIMABT DIVISION 51 

Do not permit drafts of air to strike the pupil, especially 
about the head and chest. 

Do not permit the light to fall too brightly on the eyes 
of the pupil, nor cross lights to fall on the page which he 
is studying. 

See that proper temperature is uniformly maintained. 

See that all impure air is promptly removed by frequent, 
thorough ventilation ; for pure air, let it be ever remem- 
bered, is essential to good health. 

What to Teach. — Only common terms should be used, 
the instruction should be simple, and the lessons short and 
interesting. 

The following outline will suggest many lessons adapted 
to young pupils : 

OUR BODIES 

1. What they do — 

Move, rest, sleep, eat, drink, breathe, think, talk, 
sing. 

2. Of what they are composed — 

Skin, flesh, blood, bones, etc. 

3. How they are made to grow — , 

By what we eat and drink. 
By exercise, play, and work. 

4. How they may serve us best — 

By keeping them strong and well. 
By eating pure and wholesome food. 
By taking proper exercise. 
By forming correct habits. 

5. How they may be injured — 

By using alcohol and tobacco. 
By eating unwholesome food. 
By lack of exercise and pure air. 
By irregular habits. 
By any bad habits. 



52 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

FACTS TO BE LEARNED BY PUPILS 

The muscles grow strong by use. 

The skin and the clothing should be kept clean. 

It is best to exercise in the sunlight and pure air. 

It is best to eat and drink only that which gives health 
and strength. 

Tobacco is not a food ; men live without it, and other 
animals do not use it. 

Tobacco, if eaten, makes us sick, and is, therefore, a 
poison. 

Alcohol is not a safe drink. It does not make us 
strong. Other animals do not drink alcohol. It is a 
poison. 

Alcohol and tobacco cause disease and shorten life. 

THINGS TO BE AVOIDED BY PUPILS 

1. Children, as a rule, should not drink tea or coffee. 
Pure water is best for them. 

2. Avoid eating green fruit. 

3. Do not sit or lie on damp ground. 

4. Do not exercise too long or too violently by jump- 
ing rope, running, etc. 

5. After severe play, avoid sitting down in the open 
air or in a draft to rest. 

6. Avoid cracking nuts with the teeth. Do not use 
metallic toothpicks. 

Let the teacher add to these such facts, suggestions, 
and lessons as the progress and needs of the class may 
seem to require. 

Much of the instruction in this subject may be given 
in connection with the Reading and Language exercises. 
It is thought best, however, to have a separate recitation 



PBIMABY DIVISION 53 

for the Division at least three times a week. No text- 
books need be used by pupils. 



HISTORY AND LITERATURE 

Pupils in the Primary Division may learn many of the 
important facts of history, especially when they are asso- 
ciated with anecdotes and simple stories. True stories of 
celebrated persons, especially of their child life, are always 
interesting and instructive to children. No attempt, how- 
ever, should be made to teach history in any connected 
form. The lessons may be given incidentally, or in con- 
nection with regular recitations in other subjects. 

By means of descriptions, pictures and stories, teach 
something of Columbus, Franklin, Washington, Penn, the 
Indians, Lincoln, etc. Tell about Thanksgiving Day, 
Christmas, Washington's Birthday, Good Friday, Memo- 
rial Day, Fourth of July. Have special exercises on or for 
these days. Have children learn short, easy poems ; read 
or tell them interesting stories about these days. Notice 
in some way the children's birthdays. 

Teach something about the flag of our country ; its 
colors ; pattern ; meaning of the stars, the stripes. Let 
the flag be kept in the school -room, or a picture of the 
same on the blackboard. 

Read or tell some of ^ sop's shorter fables, and have 
pupils reproduce them, first orally, afterwards in writing. 
Do not make the moral too prominent. Read or tell, occa- 
sionally, some fairy tale or myth to cultivate the imagi- 
nation of children. Let the pupils find the moral in the 
story and help to apply it. 

As soon as the children are able to read quite well, let 
them have books of history, stories and fables suited to 
their grade, for supplementary reading. 



54 OUTLINES AND METBODS 

Tell children about the Indians, and of their wild life 
in the American forests. Tell them some of the Indian 
legends and stories. Read parts of "Hiawatha." 

Tell the pupils about Longfellow as the children's 
friend. Have them commit to memory a few choice ex- 
tracts from his poems. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 

AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 

TEXT-BOOKS— Third Grade— Third Reader, Spelling Book, 
Elementary Arithmetic. Fourth Grade — Fourth Reader, Spelling 
Book, Elementary Arithmetic, Language Lessons, Primary Geography, 
Elementary Physiology, Primary History. 

APPARATUS — Globe, Maps, Copy-book, Practice Paper, Pens, Ink, 
and Material for Primary Division. 

READING — Third Grade 

The directions given for the Second Reader will be 
needed in teaching the Third. Its language is more diffi- 
cult, and many words will need to be defined for some 
pupils. The lists of words usually placed at the beginning 
of the lesson will contain most of these difficult words. 
Let them be pronounced, spelled and defined. Let the 
pupil study the reading where the word is used, in order 
to be able to define it. After the lesson has been carefully 
studied, then have it read as a whole. The lesson as ar- 
ranged in the book is a unit, and should be studied and 
read as such, even though several periods may be spent 
upon the same lesson. Follow the order of lessons as ar- 
ranged in the Reader. Review frequently difficult words 
and lessons. Let special attention be given to the 
following : 

Natural Expression. — In reading, as in talking, the 
thought must precede the expression. If, therefore, the 
thought be clear in the mind of the reader and the words 
quickly recognized, there will be as little trouble in reading 
naturally as there is in talking naturally. Lead the pupil 
to tMnh and feel what he reads by constant questioning. 
Question him before beginning a lesson, as well as after 

(55) 



56 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

reading a paragraph. Some of these questions may be 
such as will require answers in his own words ; some in 
the language of the book. Make use of the pictures of the 
lesson. 

Silent Reading". — Nearly all reading outside of the 
school-room is done silently. Pupils should learn early 
how to get the thought from the printed or written page 
quickly and silently. Have them prepare lessons at their 
seats without whispering. In the recitation, let the class 
look over a paragraph and then give the thought it contains 
with the books closed. Frequently put into the hands of 
the pupils a selection which they have not seen before, 
and give them time to read it over carefully once. Then 
have them lay it aside and talk or write about what they 
have read. 

Correct and Distinct Pronunciation.— Give special 
attention to distinct articulation as well as to correct 
pronunciation of words. This may be done by frequent 
drill in the elementary sounds and their combinations, by 
correction of errors, and by using the dictionary. Teach 
the diacritical marks as they occur in the Reader and 
Speller, with their oral interpretation. Make lists of words 
in common use frequently mispronounced, and drill the 
whole class upon their correct pronunciation. Use the 
vocal exercises found in the first part of the Reader and 
the words at the head of the lesson for class practice. 

Purity of tone and distinctness of utterance are the 
two objects to be accomplished in these vocal exercises. 

In many schools may be heard dialects, both foreign 
and native, the influence of which greatly hinders effective 
teaching. It is all -important that the vocal organs be 
trained to accurate English while in process of physical 
development. For the purposes of this training, vocal ex- 
ercises should be given daily. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 57 

Supplementary Reading-.— Use other readers, school 
papers, books, and journals of similar grade for supple- 
mentary reading. Give frequent practice in sight read- 
ing of interesting stories and descriptions. Occasionally 
read to the class from such books as " Black Beauty," 
"Each and All," "King of the Golden River," etc. 

Recitations from Memory.— Tell pupils about a few 
authors, and let them memorize such poems as Longfellow's 
"Village Blacksmith" or "The Arrow and the Song." 
Give them simple quotations and maxims from promi- 
nent authors to recite in class. Gather short recitations 
and stories from journals and books, to be recited or read 
before the whole school. Such exercises should include all 
grades, and may furnish a most interesting and profitable 
program for the closing hour of a week's school work. 

READING — Fourth Grade 

When pupils enter the Fourth Grade they should be 
able to read readily the elementary text -books in the 
several branches, as well as the lessons in the Fourth 
Reader. The principal object now before them is to 
understand the language, to present the thought clearly 
and distinctly, and to acquire a taste for good reading. 
Thus far the chief aim in this branch has been "learning 
to read ; " now the important end in view is " reading to 
learn." 

The suggestions offered for the preceding grade with 
reference to the use and meaning of words, thought- 
getting, silent reading, naturalness of expression, proper 
enunciation, supplementary' reading, and memory work, 
apply with equal force to the reading class in this grade. 
Special attention, however, should be given to the fol- 
lowing" : 



58 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

Use of Dictionary and Cyclopaedia. — Pupils in this 
grade may make frequent use of the dictionary in finding 
the meaning of words. In looking up a word, let all 
the points be noted — meaning, pronunciation, spelling, syno- 
nyms, etc. Every school -room should have a large or 
unabridged dictionary, and a number of smaller ones for 
seat use. A cyclopaedia may also be used to some extent 
in looking up historical references. Let the teacher first 
show pupils how to use reference books, before requiring 
any work from the class based upon their use. All allu- 
sions in the reading lesson — biographical, historical, and 
scientific — should be briefly explained. The meaning and 
rendering of a phrase or a sentence should be considered, 
as well as the meaning of words. Care should be taken, 
however, that the connected thought is not lost by side 
issues or irrelevant information. 

Voice Culture. — Continue drill in articulation until 
the mumbling, stumbling voices of the reading class shall 
have been trained to correct and distinct utterance. 
Teach the essential principles of inflection, emphasis, 
pitch, force, rate, quality of voice, etc., not so much by 
rules and definitions as by a natural interpretation of 
thought. Elocution, in its true sense, consists in the 
simple expression of thought as the reader thinks and feels 
that thought. Extraordinary elocutionary efforts, which 
add nothing to the presentation of thought, are to be 
shunned. 

Cultivate a Taste for Good Reading*.— When pupils 
once find a real pleasure in reading thoughtful and helpful 
books, their future in moral worth and general intelligence 
is very largely determined. Let the teacher seek to culti- 
vate this desire by pointing out passages of literary beauty, 
by helping them to find choice extracts from the reading 
lessons, by having them memorize best quotations, by 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 59 

directing supplementary reading, and by suggesting right 
lines of home reading. 

The teacher must himself appreciate the beautiful 
and the good in literature, if he would lead his pupils 
to love good books. 

The Preparation of Lessons.— When a lesson is as- 
signed, let the pupils understand just what is to be done 
by way of preparation. Words to be defined, references to 
be explained, exercises to be written out, author to be 
known, history and purpose of the selection determined, 
etc. If the recitation affords an opportunity to pupils to 
show the preparation made, it will not only maintain the 
interest in the reading exercise, but at the same time 
determine largely its worth to the class. 

What to Read. — All text -books now become helps in 
reading at sight and in ready interpretation of thought. 

If practicable, use easy biographies, history stories, 
papers, selected poems, and simple classics in class exer- 
cises. Some of these may be read by pupils at home, and 
afterwards made the subject of class conversation and 
criticism. Where a library is available, tell pupils what 
books to read. Encourage and direct in a general way 
the home reading. 

Have pupils copy short biographies of a few prominent 
authors, with brief extracts from the writings of each. Let 
these be memorized and afterwards recited in class. Tell 
them interesting incidents in the lives of these authors 
and the history or origin of favorite productions. Occa- 
sionally have a complete poem memorized. 

Interest pupils in prominent persons now living, and 
in current events, so that they will get into the habit of 
reading papers and periodicals. 

Continue literary exercises as suggested for the pre- 
ceding grade. 



60 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

SPELLING 

Pupils in the Intermediate Division should use a text- 
book in spelling, and have separate daily recitations. The 
correct spelling of words in common use is the chief object 
to be kept steadily in view. In addition to this, due atten- 
tion should be given to phonic analysis, diacritical marks, 
capital letters, contractions, abbreviations, possessive forms, 
synonyms, homonyms, and definitions. 

Preparation o! Lessons. — Pupils should early learn 
how to prepare a spelling lesson. Much valuable time 
and energy are lost in useless and meaningless repetition. 
As a rule, the lesson assigned should be a short one, 
seldom more than the number of words arranged for one 
class exercise in the ordinary spelling book. Have them 
copy the words on slate or tablet, first as a whole, then 
rewrite the difficult words. Only a few words in each 
lesson may seem difficult to the class. Let these be 
written and rewritten until pupils linow that they Imow 
their correct spelling. If words are to be used in 
sentences, defined, or marked diacritically, let the class 
understand just what is to be done, and then let the 
teacher see to it that it is done as directed. 

Correct spelling can be learned only by close obser- 
vation and careful practice. 

Oral and Written Spelling*.— For obvious reasons, the 
writing of words is much more helpful in fixing in the 
mind their correct forms than the spelling of them by 
naming the letters. Both oral and written spelling, how- 
ever, should be practiced in all classes, the latter predomi- 
nating with advanced grades. 

In oral spelling, have pupils pronounce words distinct- 
ly, first as wholes and then by syllables, thus : B-e re, 
m-e-m mem, remem, d-e-r, her, remember. It is well to 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 61 

have the words of a lesson pronounced from the open 
books and afterwards to have the words spelled with 
books closed. With younger pupils the words of the fol- 
lowing lesson should be pronounced at the close of a 
recitation. Many of them fail in the oral recitation be- 
cause they do not know the correct pronunciation of words 
when preparing the lesson. The spelling of long columns 
of words by a class from the open book is usually a waste 
of time. If the lesson has been properly prepared, this 
will not be necessary. 

Give frequent drills in spelling by sound, to cultivate 
distinct and accurate pronunciation. Faulty enunciation 
can be overcome only by patient practice. The meaning 
and use of words may be taught in the oral recitation. 

In the written recitation, have pupils write the words 
neatly and plainly from dictation. Let the teacher dictate 
the words or sentences but once, and thus cultivate the 
power of attention. Have pupils use synonyms, homo- 
nyms, and possessive forms in original sentences. 

Correcting" Errors.— In oral spelling, let each pupil 
spell correctly the words he misspelled. Do not allow 
guessing at a word. If the class does not know the word, 
let it be written upon the board, and have the pupils look 
at it and then reproduce it. Avoid calling attention to 
wrong forms. At the close of each recitation gather up 
and review all words that had been misspelled. Have 
pupils make lists of misspelled words for class review 
once or twice a week. 

For written spelling, each pupil should be supplied 
with a suitable spelling blank, with space for writing cor- 
rected words. Let the words be written with pen and ink 
and the errors marked with a lead pencil. Pupils may cor- 
rect their own work, or exchange with other members of 
the class. Let the teacher guard against dishonest prac- 



62 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

tices in reporting errors. Occasionally the teacher should 
correct the exercises, and see that neat, careful, and ac- 
curate work is done at all times. . To encourage study, 
let the teacher record the number of errors made by 
each pupil. 

General Spelling*. — Correct spelling should be taught 
in all written exercises. Lists of words may frequently 
be selected from the lesson for the day in reading, lan- 
guage, geography, physiology, or history, to supplement 
the regular spelling lesson, or even to take its place. Let 
pupils understand that no manuscript is perfect in which 
any misspelled words appear. 

Use of Dictionary. — Let the teacher aim constantly to 
teach the meaning and use of words. This may be done by 
having them used in sentences, by definitions, and by con- 
nected composition. It is not necessary that every word be 
fully understood, especially in the lower grades, but it is 
essential that all pupils shall have such a knowledge of com- 
mon English words as will enable them to use and interpret 
language readily and accurately. To this end the dictionary 
is very helpful. A sufficient number of small dictionaries 
should be placed in every school-room to accommodate all 
pupils in the Fourth and Fifth Grades, and a large diction- 
ary should be supplied for more exhaustive reference. Teach 
pupils how to use a dictionary. 

Occasional Exercises. — (1) Topical spelling, as the 
names of things in the school-room, on the farm, in the 
woods. (2) Choosing sides and "spelling down." (3) 
Choosing sides for a month, with daily contest for the best 
record in written spelling. (4) Pronouncing match : The 
teacher spells orally or writes the words, and calls upon 
each pupil in turn to pronounce one of them. If the word 
is mispronounced the pupil "goes out." (5) The "word 
game": The teacher writes a word on the board like com- 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 63 

fortahle, and gives three or five minutes^ time for writing 
words that can be formed of the letters in the word. Or, 
let the pupils write all words that can be formed beginning 
with/, or 0, or r, using any of the other letters in the word. 
(6) "Silent trapping": In oral review, the misspelled words 
are passed unnoticed until some member of the class spells 
one of them correctly, and "traps" above the one in class 
that first misspelled the word. 

Classes and Recitations. — The Third and Fourth 
Grades should each have one recitation daily from the spell- 
ing book. In some one-room schools it may be well to 
combine the Fourth Grade with the Fifth. Oral and writ- 
ten recitations may alternate. It may be better, however, 
to combine both forms in the same exercise, placing more 
stress upon the written spelling. 



WRITING 

Pupils have had, in the Primary Division, much prac- 
tice with pencils ; and, from force of habit, should write 
a neat, exact and careful hand. It is now desirable that 
they learn to use pen and ink, and receive instruction and 
drill calculated to develop a rapid and legible penmanship. 
This will require a regular writing period, a standard system 
of penmanship, a well-laid plan of instruction, and much 
careful practice. The following suggestions apply to the 

GENERAL WRITING CLASS, 

Which should include all pupils that are prepared to use pen 
and inJc. 

Appliances. — Well-tempered steel pens, good black ink, 
and ruled practice paper are essentials for the writing exer- 
cise. A good blackboard for the teacher's use is also indis- 



54 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

pensable. Copy-books of a suitable kind may be used, in 
which to write the copies that have been studied and care- 
fully practiced on other paper. Two numbers of the adopted 
series will supply the needs of the average school. In schools 
of two or more rooms, one number will be sufficient for each 
room. 

Care of Pens and Copy-books.— Each pupil should 
have a small woolen cloth or pen-wiper, and carefully clean 
the pen after each writing exercise ; otherwise the pens will 
corrode and become worthless. Copy-books should be dis- 
tributed at the beginning of each writing period and 
gathered again at the close. Practice paper should be dis- 
tributed as needed. Ink-wells should be frequently cleaned 
and filled. The ink in them should never be more than 
pen deep. A little care and direction on the part of the 
teacher under this head will save much annoyance and loss 
of time. 

Aims in Teaching". — Legibility, rapidity and beauty 
are the ends to be reached in writing, and they may be 
reached only by following rules which have been taught, 
imitating good models, and by constant practice. Pupils 
need first to have a clear idea of the correct forms of let- 
ters, their spacing, relative height, shading, etc. Then, with 
proper models before them, to endeavor through faithful 
practice to approach the ideal forms with each succeeding 
effort. To do this, both teacher and pupils must be 
thoroughly in earnest, and the writing period must be 
equal in interest and importance to any other in the daily 
program. 

Blackboard Copies.— Letters for study and analysis 
and copies for practice should generally be placed upon 
the blackboard in the presence of the class. Begin with 
simplest forms of letters, as i, ii, m, n, etc., and teach in 
groups. Have pupils analyze letters according to adopted 



INTEBMEDIATE DIVISION 65 

system. Show incorrect forms, and point out common 
faults in making letters. Take only one or two letters at 
a time. Take up whole copy for the day, and call attention 
to spacing and shading and common errors to be avoided. 
The blackboard copy should be as nearly perfect as 
possible. 

Drill in Movement. — Movement practice should begin 
with the use of the pen, and continue until there is a free 
and easy movement of the fingers and forearm. Let the 
teacher first explain and illustrate correct position, pen- 
holding, and movement, and then have pupils follow him 
in some movement exercises. These should be simple at 
first, and be made more difficult as pupils acquire facility 
in handling the pen. To secure uniformity in movement, 
count for each stroke of the pen. The teacher may write 
upon the blackboard and count while the pupils write on 
paper. Let him insist upon correct position and easy 
movement, regardless of the irregular forms resulting from 
first efforts. Half of the writing period may be spent in 
instruction and drill, the other half in individual practice. 
Guard against indiscriminate practice during the movement 
drill. 

Glass Practice. — After the general drill and instruc- 
tion, the class should take up the careful practice of the 
copy for the day. This practice should first be on sepa- 
rate sheets of paper. Afterwards a limited number of lines 
may be filled in the copy-book. It is an excellent plan 
to have the pupils hand their best practice sheets to the 
teacher, who will so mark them as to indicate either more 
practice or permission to write the copy in the book. 
During the writing period, the teacher should move about 
the room to criticise, help, and encourage individual pupils. 
Let him give special attention to the poor writers and those 
inclined to be indifferent or careless. 

E 



QQ OUTLINES AND METHODS 

General Writing^.— All that pupils learn in the writing 
class in the way of position, pen -holding, movement, neat 
and careful writing, should be faithfully applied in what- 
ever written work they may have in connection with other 
lessons, whether done with pen, pencil, or crayon. No 
careless or slovenly work should be permitted or accepted 
in any school, and it need not be if the teacher will insist 
upon careful work at all times, give the proper forms as 
models, and judicious praise for worthy effort. Occasion- 
ally, pen and ink manuscripts may be required. 

Form-Study and Drawing*.— Teach modifications and 
names of cube -forms, sphere -forms, angles, etc., and show 
how to represent these forms on paper or blackboard. 
Teach a few ornamental designs of straight and curved 
lines. Encourage pupils to make original designs to repre- 
sent forms in nature, such as leaves, simple flowers, twigs, 
plants, etc. Require them to illustrate problems, diagram 
sentences, draw maps, battlefields, and physiological forms. 

Continue lessons in color. Teach tertiary colors ; proper 
use of shade, tint, Jiue^ and tinge. Give practice in naming 
and classifying colors. 

These lessons may be given incidentally, or combined 
with the writing exercise. It is an excellent plan, however, 
to have one or two periods a week for practice in drawing, 
form -study, and colors. In one -room schools this may 
take the place of the regular writing period. 

LANGUAGE-Third Grade 

The chief ends to be sought in elementary language 
work are correctness of expression and fluency in the use 
of words. This will require material for thought, clear 
thinking, a good vocabulary of words, and abundant prac- 
tice in expression that is direct, simple, free and natural. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 67 

In this language development, a manual or elementary 
text-book may be helpful to the teacher, but will be of 
little value in the hands of pupils in this grade. The 
teacher must be their text -hook. 

Information Lessons. — In securing fluency of expres- 
sion, it is essential that pupils shall first have something 
to talk or write about. Observation or object lessons upon 
common plants, animals, and minerals ; short stories, bear- 
ing upon history ; descriptions of places, journeys, and 
plays ; imaginative stories from pictures, etc. These will 
form the basis for oral and written language exercises. 
There should be sufficient oral discussion and conversation 
to produce clear and accurate thinking. The reading les- 
sons will furnish much material for language culture. 

Models of Good English.— Among the most effective 
means to acquire correct expression is by imitation of 
selected models of elegant English. Let the teacher him- 
self be careful in the use of good language, and encourage 
his pupils to use the best at their command at all times. 
Have them copy from the reader and other books interest- 
ing descriptions and stories, first from the book, afterward 
from memory. Require them to memorize short quotations 
once or twice a week. Have them write short sentences 
from dictation. 

Orig-inal Languag-e Work.— Let pupils continue to 
use given words and phrases in original sentences, as in 
the Primary Division. Encourage variety of forms in 
sentence building. Read or tell short stories or descrip- 
tions, and after a time have pupils reproduce them in their 
own language. Outline and discuss with them subjects 
for composition, and after the pupils have been fully in- 
formed, let them write out their thoughts in connected 
form. Use only simple subjects, and encourage all worthy 
effort by pupils. 



68 OUT LIKE 8 AND METHODS 

Ready and elegant expression is secured only by well- 
directed and long-continued practice. 

Teaeh Mechanical Forms. — Require constant and 
proper use of terminal marks, abbreviations, the comma, 
the apostrophe in possessive forms and in contractions, 
quotation marks, capital letters, use of the hyphen in 
compound words and the division of words at the end of 
a line, forms of letter heading and close, and forms of 
address. Require correct spelling at all times. Teach 
these forms in connection with all written exercises, so 
that their correct use shall become habitual. 

Letter Writing". — The writing of letters in some form 
or other is always attractive to children, and should fre- 
quently engage their attention. A good letter -writer, like 
a good talker, has something to say, and says it in a direct 
and natural way. Show pupils how to date, head, introduce, 
close, and fold a letter, and how to address the envelope. 
Give special attention to the body of the letter as to lan- 
guage, sentiment, and expression. Have pupils write letters 
to the teacher, to friends, or relatives in another state or 
county. Have them describe an imaginary visit or journey. 
These letters should always be written on good paper with 
pen and ink. 

Simple Grammatical Forms.— Along with the compo- 
sition work, teach the parts of a sentence — subject and 
predicate ; use of nouns — proper and common ; plural 
and possessive forms of nouns, uses and definitions of 
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, and prepositions ; 
possessive and objective forms of pronouns ; use of J, he, 
she, we, and tJieij after is and tvas. Have pupils analyze 
short sentences and name parts of speech. In teaching 
forms, classes, and definitions, the teacher should keep in 
view the text -book to be used in the next grade, so that 
the work done may prepare pupils to use the text -book 
intelligently. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 59 

Correction of Errors. — In oral work, errors in expres- 
sion or in the proper use of words should be promptly 
corrected. The correct, rather than the incorrect, forms 
should be impressed upon the minds of pupils. It is 
well for the teacher to make a note of the faulty expres- 
sions of pupils, and then to arrange exercises for drill with 
a view to secure habitual accuracy. Encourage pupils to 
criticise each other in the misuse of language. 

In written work, the careful correction of errors largely 
determines the value of the exercises. Incorrect forms, 
unnoticed, are impressed upon the mind, and their use 
will soon become habitual. Let no language work be 
done, therefore, without correction. In all exercises of 
de:Qnite and uniform expression, pupils may correct the 
work. In original or varying exercises, the teacher should 
examine and mark the manuscripts. In either case the 
exercise should be rewritten and all errors corrected. It 
is a good plan to provide pupils with tablets or blank- 
books in which to preserve all final or finished written 
work. 

LANGUAGE — Fourth Grade 

Continue exercises in composition work as indicated for 
the Third Grade, adapting it to the text -book in language 
now to be made the basis of the daily recitations. Many 
elementary language books suggest and provide for much 
of the composition work in the regular course of lessons. 
Such lessons and suggestions should never be hurriedly 
passed over, but fully developed and liberally supplemented 
by outside material. As a rule, exercises to illustrate the 
principles of grammar should be written out by pupils as 
the best means to prepare the lesson, and thus fix the 
principle or rule to be illustrated. Do not ask pupils to 



70 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

diagram sentences until they have learned to analyze them 
orally. The mere diagram without its oral interpretation 
is both useless and meaningless. 

Pupils in this grade should be taught the classes and 
forms of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and 
conjunctions. Special study of prepositions commonly mis- 
used. Special attention should be given to mode and tense 
forms of the verb, principal parts of the verb, and much 
practice in using the past tense and past participle of 
irregular verbs in sentences. Teach classification of sen- 
tences, use and position of modifiers, uses of the marks 
of punctuation, and false syntax. 

Only the general forms and classes of grammar should 
be taught in this grade, leaving the sub -classes and tech- 
nical distinctions for the Advanced Division. Bo not mys- 
tify pupils with too many rules, forms, and definitions. 
Use only such parts of the text -book as may be compre- 
hended and applied by them. 



ARITHMETIC -Third Grade 

The work of this grade presents an important step in 
advance, since now, for the first time, the pupil is to 
have the book for a guide, and must learn how to use 
it. When he has learned this, he will be able to work 
for himself, and to obtain knowledge from the book in 
addition to that obtained from the teacher. At every 
step, however, the text -book lessons must be supplemented 
by related drill exercises and practical application. 

Drill thoroughly in accurate and rapid calculation. 

The fundamental operations should be reviewed and 
mastered. Sums, minuends, products, and dividends should 
not exceed eight places. The applied oral work should be 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 71 

limited to numbers below 100. Teach Roman notation to 
1,000. Factoring and composition of simple numbers. 
Reduction of fractions, taught objectively. Teach how 
to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions, using 
simple forms and making concrete applications. United 
States money, with applications in business problems. Mak- 
ing change. Small bills written out by pupils. 

Give many little problems relating to the farm, the 
store, the mill, the home, or the factory. Require pupils 
to analyze concrete problems and to use arithmetical 
language. Help pupils over language difficulties. 

Teach tables of weight, length, capacity and time. 
Build up table of square measure from table of length. 
Teach the cubic inch, foot, and yard, and how each 
is obtained. Reduction of compound numbers, simple 
forms. 

The leading purpose of the work in this grade is to 
make the pupil skillful in the mechanical operations and 
to enable him to apply constantly his knowledge of num- 
bers in the affairs of every -day life. 

Rules. — In this grade the rules of Arithmetic should be 
learned through their intelligent application, rather than 
by the memorizing of the set language of the book. Pu- 
pils must learn to solve a problem from the conditions 
apparent in its statement, and not because it stands under 
a certain rule in the text -book. It is well, therefore, to 
give lists of simple problems involving various rules 
passed over. This will lead to independent thought and 
work. When the application of a rule or principle is once 
fairly learned, it may then be formulated in proper arith- 
metical language. 

Answers. — Text-books for the Intermediate Division 
should have no printed answers. The getting of the 
answer in the book by some calculation is often made 



72 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

the end of arithmetical stud3^ This is wrong. The an- 
swer is a convenience for the teacher and may be a proof 
of the pupiFs knowledge ; but it cannot help to solve the 
problem, nor furnish the only evidence that the pupil 
understands the process by which it is obtained. Let the 
preparation of the lesson, as well as the class exercises, be 
so directed as to establish the pupil's confidence in his own 
ability to get correct results. Let him frequently be re- 
quired to give the reasons for the successive steps in the 
solution of a problem, so that habitual accuracy and in- 
dependent and intelligent reasoning shall leave little room 
for incorrect results. 

Seat Work. — Let the pupils work out the problems 
assigned, and indicate the work in neat statements on 
paper, to be brought to the class recitation. This is both 
a means and a proof of careful preparation. The teacher 
must see, however, that this work is not done " by proxy." 
Have the pupils frequently make original problems along 
the lines indicated by the teacher. Some of these should 
be solved in class. Always require neatly -made figures 
and lines. Have occasional written reviews as a test of 
mental grasp, using problems similar to those used in 
class practice. 

ARITHMETIC — Fourth Grade 

This grade should complete an Elementary Arithmetic, 
including fractions, simple decimals, denominate numbers, 
practical measurements, and the elements of percentage. 

Review fundamental operations, giving attention to 
special and short processes. Continue occasional class drills. 
Give thorough drill in factoring, greatest common divisors, 
and least common multiples. Teach principles of fractions 
by concrete illustration, and complete operations in fractions. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 73 

Give and require many applied problems in fractions. 
Simple decimals thoroughly mastered by means of class 
and blackboard drill. Remember that the decimal 'point 
is the nucleus of all class work in decimals. Practice on 
the cost of things bought by the hundred, the thousand, 
or the ton. Bills and accounts. Give and require neat 
and correct forms. Let some of these be written with 
pen and ink. Have pupils make simple bills and accounts 
for class use. 

Denominate numbers. Tables thoroughly studied. Have 
pupils make concrete applications. Reduction of compound 
numbers. 

Longitude and time, with simple problems, illustrated 
with globe and maps. Teach Standard Time. 

Practical measurements. Practice in measuring surfaces 
for papering, plastering, painting, and carpeting. Drill on 
board measure, contents of bins, cisterns, fields, etc. Fix 
number of inches in a gallon ; in a bushel. Let pupils 
make problems in various measurements for class use. 

Percentage may be introduced in this grade, giving 
only its simpler forms, such as finding the percentage, 
having the base and rate given. Trade discount. Simple 
interest, when the time is expressed in years or years and 
months. Use the decimal notation. 

Too many pupils go over this part of the Arithmetic 
mechanically, and do not learn to think and reason. 
Hence the necessity for many practical problems outside 
of the text-book and much oral and mental work. 
Require reasons for solutions to be stated understandingly. 
Teach pupils to prove their work. 

Class Praetiee. — It is well to have pupils write out 
the solutions of problems as suggested for the preceding 
grade. If this is well done, and the teacher is satisfied 
that pupils understand the text-book matter of the lesson, 



74 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

then the recitation may be given largely to general drill, 
direct instruction , and the solution and oral analysis of 
supplementary problems. It is a woful waste of time to 
send a class to the blackboard with books in hand to 
solve a lot of problems every one of which is well under- 
stood beforehand. Let the teacher have on her desk several 
elementary arithmetics or number manuals, upon which to 
draw for supplementary problems. Many original problems, 
growing out of home environments and business practice, 
may be constructed by teacher and pupils. Have frequent 
oral and written reviews. As a rule, let the blackboard 
work be done without text-books. 

Oral or Mental Arithmetic. — Pupils in this grade 
should have careful training and much practice in the oral 
solution of problems. A separate text -book in mental 
arithmetic, however, is not necessary, and in one -room 
schools is not expedient. If the elementary arithmetic in 
use does not require or suggest sufficient drill in oral analysis, 
let the teacher dictate or write upon the blackboard a num- 
ber of problems for the following recitation. It is im- 
practical in any school to have separate books and different 
subjects in arithmetic upon the same day. Mental and 
written arithmetic constitute a single subject in the school 
curriculum, and should be so treated in the daily program. 

GEOGRAPHY— Third Grade 

The lessons for this grade should be such as will enlarge 
the pupil's scope of knowledge in nature -forms, home 
surroundings, geographical language and terms, and thus 
lead up to the study of geography proper in the next 
grade. No text -book should be used by pupils, except 
possibly for occasional reference. Let the teacher endeavor 
to arouse the curiosity of pupils, cultivate their imagi- 



1 INTEBMEDIATE DIVISION 75 

nation, and impart useful knowledge by means of pictures, 
oral descriptions, selected readings, blackboard illustrations, 
maps, and globe. 

Local Geography. — Let the teacher make a plan of the 
school -room, observing points of the compass. Pupils 
make the same. Meaning of a map. Draw map or plan 
of the school -ground. Enlarge and locate surroundings. 
Note slopes, hills, streams, bridges. Compare with moun- 
tains, rivers, cities, or large towns pupils may have seen. 
Develop the idea of a township or a borough, a state, a 
county. Draw map of county; locate and describe towns, 
railroads, places of interest. Tell some facts of early set- 
tlement. Compare condition of early settlers with the 
present development in surroundings, occupations, products, 
conveniences, etc. Teach the state, its capital, metropolis, 
large cities. Take imaginary journeys to ^various parts of 
the state, describing large rivers, mountains, cities and 
manufactories, occupations and productions, and places of 
interest. 

Give pupils opportunity to tell what they may have 
learned for themselves from observation and from books. 

Use of Globe and Maps.— By means of globe, teach 
size, shape, and motions of the earth. Elementary facts 
about the seasons, length of day and night, relation to sun 
and moon. Teach equator, poles, and hemisphere ; pro- 
portion of land and water, names of continents. Drill on 
outline maps. Have pupils learn names and location of 
states, capitals, large cities, mountains, rivers, lakes, and 
countries. These drills may be both interesting and help- 
ful if properly conducted. Do not attempt too much. 
Review frequently. 

Physical Geography. — Continue study of animals and 
plants. Have pupils tell or read about wild animals. 
Habits of animals in cold and warm countries. Names, 



76 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

habits and characteristics of birds. Vegetation in winter. 
Conditions of vegetable growth. Let pupils plant beans, 
grains of corn or wheat, to notice the development of the 
young plant. Uses of plants — for food, clothing, shelter. 
Weeds. Flowers. Let the children bring flowers and tell 
about them. How to distinguish trees by the leaves, by 
the bark, by the wood fiber. 

Talks about the weather continued. Snow ; cause of 
snow; forms and size of flakes; sleet; hail; frost. Illustrate 
nature and cause of dew by glass of cold water in a warm 
room. Illustrate evaporation by placing water on the hot 
stove. How clouds are formed. Source of springs, rivu- 
lets and streams. How the flowing spring and the running 
brook are constantly supplied. Uses of wells, springs, 
lakes and rivers. The thunder shower ; lightning ; the 
lightning rod. Effects of drought. 

Teach forms of land and water by using near-by illus- 
trations as much as possible. Develop fully the idea of 
hill, plain, valley, mountain, table-land, cape, isthmus, island, 
peninsula, coast, brook, river, lake, ocean, strait, gulf or bay, 
watershed, and related terms. Teach, finally, good defini- 
tions of all geographical forms and terms introduced. 

Whenever it is practicable, this grade should have daily 
and separate recitations in geography. If this is not con- 
venient, then let the lines indicated above be carefully and 
regularly developed in connection with other lessons, giving, 
however, one or two separate lessons each week. Much 
preparatory work should be done before pupils are able to 
take up a text -book in geography. 

GEOGRAPHY-Fourth Grade 

An elementary text -book, if not too difficult, should be 
completed by this grade. As a rule, the order of lessons 
in the book used should be followed in the class recitations, 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 77 

supplementing with outside drill, map -drawing, and con- 
tinued descriptions in nature studies. 

Preparation of Lessons. — Pupils must be taught 
how to use a book in geography properly, and how to pre- 
pare the lessons assigned. It is well for the teacher to 
study the lesson with the pupils, giving such additional 
information to the text as will make plain what the book 
contains and add interest and value to the recitation. Let 
the pupils read the questions and find the answers to them. 
This will bring out all hard words and train in correct 
pronunciation. Have pupils find on maps all places asked 
for, and then tell about them in complete statements. 
After a lesson has been carefully studied in class, let it 
be reviewed by pupils individually and then recited with 
books closed. Assign short lessons and have pupils master 
them, giving them, at the same time, such additional infor- 
mation and drill as will make every lesson complete in 
itself, clearly understood, and practical. 

Map-drawing" and Sketching",— Reproduction by pen- 
cil or crayon is one of the most effective means to fix in 
the mind what has been learned. As soon as map -study 
begins, have pupils draw outlines, first in simple or general 
form, afterwards filling in as facts and features are learned. 
When the states are taken up, let each state be represented 
on paper, first singly, then in groups. Show pupils how 
to represent mountains, coast lines, etc. Do not have 
names written on maps, but let pupils know what every 
line or mark on the map drawn by them means. En- 
courage neatness and taste in execution. Preserve best 
maps drawn. Rapid map -sketching is an excellent practice 
in regular class work. While one pupil is describing or 
bounding a state, let another produce the outline on the 
blackboard, continuing to indicate each feature as the oral 
description may require. Have frequent written exercises 



78 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

on blackboard. These should be made the basis of class 
criticism. Insist upon correct spelling and pronunciation. 
Modeling in clay, pulp or putty may be introduced as an 
occasional exercise. All relief maps should be carefully 
studied. 

Prominent Features. — Give special attention to the 
physical features of each country or section as studied. 
Let the facts be linked together so as to suggest a series 
of causes and effects. Show that climatic conditions deter- 
mine largely the productions, occupations, and social con- 
dition. 

Teach the sources, characteristics, methods of produc- 
tion, and uses of commodities, such as coffee, tea, pepper, 
spices, sugar, salt, rice, cotton, opium, coal, iron, gold, 
silver, tin, petroleum, oranges, bananas, etc., etc. Have 
pupils find out all they can for themselves about these 
common products. Supplement their knowledge with oral 
descriptions, illustrations and readings. Have pupils bring 
specimens for class study. 

In this grade teach fully the geography of the state 
as given in the elementary text-book, and have maps of 
the state drawn. Compare it with other states as to area, 
population, climate, productions, etc. Locate the principal 
railroads and chief business centers. Give number of 
counties, and compare the home county with surrounding 
counties. Locate and describe briefly some of the leading 
educational institutions, and tell of its school system. Note 
places of historic interest in the state, and associate with 
them prominent historical characters. Outline the state 
government and name state officials. Have pupils take 
imaginary journeys to different sections of the state, 
describing what they would probably see. 

Have occasional written reviews, requiring manuscripts 
to be written with pen and ink. 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 79 

PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

All pupils in this and higher grades should have text- 
books and regular recitations at least three times a week. 
A good elementary physiology should be used, and supple- 
mented by continued oral instruction and drill. A good 
physiological chart is almost indispensable in the teaching 
of this subject. Make frequent use of the blackboard. 
Whenever it is practicable, let the teacher secure small parts 
of animals from the butcher for class study in anatomy. 

Do not allow pupils to memorize or repeat -what is 
not clearly understood. 

Along with the work outlined in the text -book used, put 
special stress upon the following points: 

The value of regular hygienic rules and habits, and the 
effect of proper habits upon long life and happiness. 

The value of wholesome exercise, pure air, undisturbed 
sleep, sunlight, and proper food in the development of 
sound, healthy bodies. 

The nature of disease — the derangement of organic 
functions. The effect of disease — impaired vitality, broken 
health, or death. The prevention of disease — proper ob- 
servance of hygienic laws. Diseases that are contagious, 
infectious, epidemic, or hereditary. 

Names and sources of common narcotic poisons. 

Effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics upon the 
mental and moral faculties. 

The tendency of indulgence to increase appetite for 
strong drink. 

The tendency of indulgence to foster disease and to 
weaken vital forces, so as to prevent recovery from disease. 

Prevailing errors corrected, as that alcoholic drinks give 
strength and increase power to endure heat and cold. 

Teachers have responsibility, of which they ought not 



80 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

to be ignorant, in disseminating a knowledge of the laws 
of health. They ought to be in sympathy with the law 
of the state which requires that in the study of this 
subject, special stress shall be placed upon the effects of 
alcoholic stimulants and narcotics upon the human body. 
In this, as in all other instructions, the teacher's example 
and precept ought to be in harmony. But the teacher's 
duty does not end here. Children should be trained to a 
conscientious regard for and obedience to all hygienic laws. 
They should feel that the laws of health are sacred, and 
that it is wrong to violate them by doing anything that 
impairs or threatens the health of the body. They should 
cultivate a high ideal of health — its beauty, its grace, its 
power, and its usefulness. How beautiful and how true 
are the lines : 

Better than grandeur, better than gold, 
Than rank or titles, a hundred fold, 
Is a healthy body, a mind at ease, 
And gentle manners, that always please. 

" Better bodies for our boys and girls," was the motto of 
Dio Lewis, and it ought to be the motto of every teacher. 
If all our teachers perform their duties faithfully in this 
behalf, they will diminish disease and increase the public 
health. They will increase human happiness and prolong 
human life. 

UNITED STATES HISTORY — Third Grade 

The work in history for this grade, while still general 
and without text-books, should take more definite form, 
and should prepare pupils for the proper use of a text- 
book in the next grade. History stories may be con- 
tinued, but should be largely about persons, to the end 
that pupils may become interested in the prominent char- 
acters in history, and will then want to know more about 



INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 81 

the share each may have had in the development of the 
country. These stories may be read or told by the teacher 
after a few of the leading facts have been stated. More 
frequently, however, let the pupils read in turn at sight, 
or allow one pupil to read the story to the class. All such 
exercises should be followed by talking and writing upon 
the subjects given, in order to encourage attention, fix in 
the mind what has been learned, and cultivate the power of 
ready and correct expression. Isolated facts in history may 
be given in brief statements and frequently reviewed. 

The study of history is the study of its prominent 
characters. 

Seek, therefore, to interest pupils in the individual charac- 
ters, and then associate with them important events and dates. 

Have pupils memorize " Independence Bell," '^ Paul Re- 
vere 's Ride," ^^ Sheridan's Ride," etc. Let them sing 
"America," "Marching through Georgia," "The Red, 
White, and Blue," " The Star -Spangled Banner," etc. The 
entire school should join in these songs and listen to the 
recitation of patriotic poems. 

UNITED STATES HISTORY — Fourth Grade 

A primary or local state history should be used by this 
grade, supplementing with history stories, recitations, read- 
ings, recreations, and review drills. During the first year 
the history should be used as a supplementary reader. Let 
the pupils read the story of the lesson, while the teacher 
explains and enlarges its scope, and by proper questions 
brings out its full meaning and interest. After a lesson 
has been studied in this way, let the pupils prepare to re- 
cite it with the books closed. Encourage them to tell the 
story of the lesson in their own way. As a rule, let them 
take up topics and discuss them. After the first pupil has 

F 



82 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

told all he knows about an assigned topic, let the other 
members of the class add what they can. 

Let the whole class be held responsible for any 
omissions or errors in individual recitations. 

Give special prominence to the biographies of prominent 
persons in history. Review frequently the leading incidents 
and events in the lives of each. Have pupils write brief 
biographical sketches to be read in class. 

Use of Maps and Blackboard.— History and Geog- 
raphy are closely related, and many facts in each may be 
linked together in the recitation. Draw upon the pupil's 
knowledge of Geography to locate places of historic interest. 
Point out on the map noted battlefields, settlements, and 
discoveries. Let pupils sketch upon the board routes of 
marching armies, war campaigns, boundaries of settlements 
and accessions. This will help to fix the facts of history 
more definitely. The teacher should be skillful in the use 
of crayon in illustrating many points in the lesson. 

Patriotic Selections and Song's,— In connection with 
the related topics, read "The American Flag," "Liberty 
Bell," "The Landing of the Pilgrims," "The Brave at 
Home," "Paul Revere's Ride," " Patrick Henry's Appeal," 
" Barbara Frietchie," and similar selections. Let the pu- 
pils memorize some of them. Teach patriotic songs, as 
in the preceding grade. National holidays should be fully 
explained, and, whenever practicable, appropriate general 
exercises should be arranged for their observance. 

Boys and girls should early catch the spirit of true and 
loyal citizenship, and be led to feel a personal pride in their 
common heritage. With this sentiment developed and fostered, 
the study of history will be to them attractive and beneficial. 

The use of logical outlines and the study of Civil 
Government should be deferred until pupils reach the 
Advanced Division. 



ADVANCED DIVISION 



AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 

TEXT-BOOKS — Fifth Reader, Dictionary, Spelling Book, Arith- 
metic, Mental Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography, Physiology, and United 
States History. 

APPARATUS — Wall Charts or Maps in Geography, History, and 
Physiology; Arithmetical Forms, Large Dictionary, Cyclopaedia, and 
Apparatus for Intermediate Division. 



READING 

The objects to be kept steadily in view in this grade 
are : (1) Thought getting, (2) voice culture, (3) creating 
a desire to read good literature, (4) directing the pupil in 
the selection of proper lines of reading. 

The essentials of good reading should be vigorously 
exacted; viz., A free, pure, forcible, and pleasing voice, 
an intelligent use of modulations appropriate to the sense 
and sentiment, incisive but fluent utterance, correct pro- 
nunciation, clear comprehension of the drift and scope of 
the paragraph or selection. 

The most important and difficult part of the instructor 
lies in questioning, or, better, in making practical use of 
his best insight as to what the pupil does understand and 
what he does not understand, what he should be taught 
and what may be left for the present untaught. 

Every pupil in this grade should have a good diction- 
ary, or at least have ready access to one, and should be 
required to prepare each lesson as carefully and as thor- 
oughly as in any other branch. 

The teacher needs to study each lesson. He will need 
a general knowledge of good literature and a fund of 
information to make each recitation interesting and helpful. 

(83) 



84 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

Vocal Exercises. — Continue drills in voice culture, as 
in the preceding grades, using more difficult exercises. 
The first pages of the reader usually furnish excellent 
material for voice training. Much of this training may 
be given in concert exercises, but care should be taken 
to observe and correct individual faults. Encourage pupils 
to practice difficult exercises for themselves. Seek to estab- 
lish a high appreciation of clear, full, and well-modulated 
utterance. 

Outlines of Literature. — In connection with the read- 
ing exercises, pupils in this grade should learn something 
about the leading authors in English and American litera- 
ture. As a rule, it will be found best to study biogra- 
phies in connection with the reading of selections from 
the authors to be studied. All the selections of one author 
contained in the reader may thus be read successively, 
while the pupils are asked to find out all they can about 
the author from literatures and other books of reference. 
During the last year of the course, a few short classics, 
such as "Evangeline," "The Deserted Village," "The Legend 
of Sleepy Hollow," "Autobiography of Franklin," maj^ be 
read and studied in class. Let pupils memorize passages 
from the classics thej^ read. Let the teacher help to find 
these extracts and bring out their beauty and worth. 
Certain selections from the reader may be learned by the 
whole class. The advantage and benefit of such acqui- 
sitions will not be questioned. 

If the school has a library, tell pupils what you expect 
them to read. Do not encourage pupils to read many 
books during the school term. Choose a few good books, 
and have these read well. If no library is available, try 
to secure a few books for the class. Let these be read 
in turn at home and afterwards discussed in class. 

Look into the readins: habits of the children out of 



ADVANCED DIVISION 85 

school. Inculcate a proper contempt for bad literature. 
Lead them to see the good in literature, and tell them 
where it may be found. 

Current Literature. — There are now a number of school 
papers published weekly or bi-weekly which aim to give 
a summary of important current events, especially written 
for school -room use. Every school can and should have 
a number of these papers. Once or twice a week they 
may be used in class reading, and made the basis of class 
discussion. General reading is the source of a broad intel- 
ligence, and the school -room should help pupils, not only 
in choosing proper reading, but also in forming the Jiahit 
of reading much and well. 

SPELLING 

Review of the more important parts of the spelling 
book. Make special lists of difficult words. 

Spell difficult words in all lessons. Make a specialty 
of geographical and historical names. Notice names of 
noted authors and their works. 

Teach proper and continual use of dictionary. In look- 
ing up a word, learn, all about it — spelling, pronunciation, 
meaning, special use, derivation, and synonyms. 

Teach simple rules of spelling, such as dropping or re- 
taining final e, doubling final consonant, etc. 

Teach and illustrate fully definitions for prefix, suffix, 
root, primitive word, derivative word, compound word, 
diphthong, triphthong, etc. 

Teach lists of abbreviations as found in the spelling 
book and dictionary. Continue pronouncing exercises 
from the open book. Drill in phonic spelling. 

Make correct spelling a part of every manuscript exer- 
cise. Teach the proper use of capital letters, apostrophe, 



86 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

hyphen, etc., as a matter of orthography. No manuscript 
should be marked perfect in which any misspelled words 
are found. 

Occasional pronouncing and spelling matches for review 
of difficult words will be found interesting and beneficial 
in any school. 

In one -room schools, the Fifth Grade may be combined 
with the Fourth Grade in regular spelling exercises, with 
an occasional separate lesson or drill. 

WRITING 

Continue drill in free and rapid muscular movement 
with the General Writing Class. For suggestions, see 
Intermediate Division. 

The three essentials of good -writing are legibility, 
rapidity, and beauty. The first should never be sacri- 
ficed for either of the other two. 

In this grade give special attention to letter and busi- 
ness forms. 

Require pupils to write letters and address them; to 
write receipts, orders, promissory notes, bills, etc., giving 
them proper models. 

In all the written exercises exact care and neatness, 
and require pen and ink work frequently. There is no 
good reason why all written reviews and examinations 
should not be done with pen and ink. It will develop 
accuracy of thought and habits of neatness and dis- 
patch. 

Careful practice in writing should be required every 
day. Many boys attend school but a few weeks in a win- 
ter. This time should be utilized in the best way. No 
one should be allowed to spend three months in school 
without acquiring a fair hand. But this can be done 



ADVANCED DIVISION 87 

only by intelligent practice by the pupil under the faith- 
ful direction and careful criticism of the teacher. 

Drawing*. — The time has not yet come when we can 
hope to have a complete course in drawing in all elemen- 
tary schools ; yet no school should fail to have some ex- 
ercise daily in the practice of this most useful art. The 
ability to use the pencil or the pen, so that with a few 
strokes of either one can represent to the eye that which 
he cannot so well describe, is an acquisition the value of 
which cannot be overestimated. That children can be 
trained to acquire much of this ability at school is not so 
generally recognized. As a matter of course, the teacher 
in this, as in all other lines of work, must be schooled in 
the theory and skilled in the practice of drawing in order 
to make the work of his pupils practical and interesting. 

Pupils in this grade should learn to represent common 
objects by means of lines and shading. While theoretical 
perspective need not be taught, its elementary principles 
may be brought into practical use. Use such models 
as leaves, fruits, boxes, baskets, bowls, goblets, simple 
flowers, etc. 

Arrange borders, rosettes, and other artificial forms, 
observing proportion, symmetry, and pleasing repetition. 

Cutting, arranging, and mounting units of colored paper 
may be an occasional exercise. Require some original 
work. Preserve best drawings for exhibition. 

The pupils of this grade should be taught something 
of the most noted works of art in painting and sculpture. 
Copies of the world's great pictures and representations of 
noted statuary are now so readily obtained that every teacher 
may secure and use such material as will enable him to 
link the crude efforts of children with the highest types 
of beauty of form and expression, and thus increase their 
interest and their love for all that is beautiful in the 



88 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

world about them. Interest the pupils in the lives of 
great artists, as well as in their great works. 

Map -sketching should be taught in connection with 
Geography and History. This consists in drawing rapidly 
the boundaries of a country, state, or county, representing 
the approximate location of lakes, mountains, and cities ; 
tracing rivers, routes of marching armies, locating battle- 
fields, etc. This should be a frequent practice, as it is a 
most valuable aid to memory, and develops accuracy and 
skill. Whenever arithmetical problems involve geometrical 
forms, let the proper forms be drawn. 

Map -drawing should be done more carefully and by 
some sj^stem. Each pupil using a text -book in Geography 
should be required to draw one or two maps each month, 
finishing them so as to give artistic effect as well as cor- 
rect representation. The teacher should give proper models 
and instructions. 

GRAMMAR 

In the Primary and Intermediate Divisions, thought ex- 
pression has been made most prominent in all language 
exercises. This has developed facility and accuracy in the 
use of language, and prepared the way for the study of 
the principles of Grammar. While constructive exercises 
should be continued through the Advanced Division, 
special attention should now be given to grammatical 
forms, analysis, diagrams, parsing, rules of syntax, and 
the elements of Ehetoric. Some good text -book in Gram- 
mar should be taken up and completed. Important fea- 
tures in this study are: 

(a) The Yerh — Classes, forms, and uses; mode, mode 
signs or forms, with tenses and tense forms ; voice, laws 
and tests of voice ; irregular verbs, practice in the use of 



ADVANCED DIVISION 89 

verb forms; infinitives and participles, forms, modes of dis- 
tinguishing, construction. 

(&) The Pronoun — Classes and sub - classes ; forms and 
uses of the relative, the interrogative, the compound per- 
sonal; choice of pronouns. 

(c) Case Forms — Of the noun, of the pronoun; the 
possessive case; uses of the apostrophe. 

{d) Analysis — Classification of sentences, phrases, clauses, 
connectives ; forms of analysis ; use of models and dia- 
grams ; use and value of diagrams as aids in analysis. 

(e) Syntax — Rules of sj-ntax ; application in original 
sentences ; false syntax corrected ; language idioms. 

(/) Parsing — Parsing of sentences — naming parts of 
speech; parsing of words — class, inflections, properties, 
uses, syntax. 

Constructive Exercises.— In connection with the study 
of grammatical forms, pupils should have much practice 
in illustrating by original examples every point presented. 
In addition to this there may be practice in combining, 
contracting, and expanding the elements of a sentence, such 
as combining two or more simple sentences into a complex 
or compound sentence ; contracting clauses into phrases ; 
expanding words or phrases into clauses. The rules of 
punctuation should be taught in connection with these 
exercises, as well as in all composition work. 

Letter-writing". — Pupils have already learned many of 
the forms of letter- writing. These should be carefully 
reviewed and supplemented with special forms. Special 
attention should now be given to the body of the letter, 
and the essentials of correspondence. Let the pupils write 
letters of friendship, introduction, business, etc. This is a 
form of composition not only of a practical nature, but 
usually interesting and attractive to boys and girls. As a 
rule, the letters should be corrected and re- written with pen 



90 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

and ink. Have pupils also write telegraphic dispatches, 
news items, business notices, etc. 

Compositions. — Occasionally, complete essays or ex- 
tended compositions upon selected subjects should be re- 
quired of each member of the grammar class. If pupils 
have had the necessary practice in composition work up to 
this grade, they will readily write upon any subject within 
their grasp and knowledge. Let familiar subjects be assigned, 
and in many cases outlined, for the pupils. Provide for 
them the necessary helps and references, and give them time 
to do the work well. Do not allow them to copy language 
from others without giving the proper credit. In correct- 
ing manuscripts, the following key may be used : 

S. — Error in spelling. G. — Error in grammar. 

P. — Error in punctuation. PaP. — To begin paragraph. 
C. — Error in capital letter. X. — Obvious error. 

Wd. — Wrong word. ? — To inquire about. 

From 3 to 10 per cent may be deducted from a 
manuscript for careless work and poor writing. 

Elements of RhetOPic. — Grammar and rhetoric are so 
closely related that neither subject can be taught com- 
pletely without touching the groundwork of the other. 
Well -advanced grammar classes, therefore, may learn to 
distinguish and use properly the principal figures of 
speech, a few of the essential laws of diction, and the 
leading forms of prose and poetry. In one -room schools 
no separate text -book need be used. 

Study of Select Passag-es.— During the last year of 
the course choice passages from standard authors may be 
taken up for class study, analysis and parsing. Para- 
phrasing is also a practical and profitable exercise. After 
some classic has been read in the reading class, let the 
pupils write a brief review or summary of it. Such exer- 



ADVANCED DIVISION 91 

cises will make them familiar with the style of authors and 
establish in their minds a standard of elegant English. 

ARITHMETIC 

A good Grammar School Arithmetic should be com- 
pleted in this grade, supplemented by many practical 
problems from other sources. 

Review common and decimal fractions, denominate num- 
bers, longitude and time, and practical measurements, 
laying special stress upon the principles involved and their 
application in the more difficult problems. 

Many short problems and simple exercises for class drill 
are worth much more for the purpose of thoroughly 
grounding pupils in the essentials of practical arithmetic 
than the involved and extended problems frequently found 
in the text -books. 

Advance work should begin with percentage proper, 
and include its various applications, simple and compound 
proportion, square and cube root, partnership, and men- 
suration. 

Teach percentage by the formulae; viz., 

f BaseXrate=percentage. 
I Base+percentage=amount. 
Formula \ Base — percentage=difference. 
Percentage-^-rate=base . 
^ Percentage-j-base=rate. 

Use the decimal system in calculations, and impress 
upon pupils the importance of placing it correctly. After 
a problem has been solved on the board, let the formula for 
it be stated. This is always a brief statement of the rule 
used in solving it. Teach all applications of percentage 
as simple variations of the general formulae, as shown in 
the following table : 



92 



OUTLINES AND METHODS 



Percentage 


APPLICATIONS OF PERCENTAGE 


Proper 


Without Time 


With Time 












Profit 






Discount 






Com- 


Insur- 


Taxes 


and 


Stock 


Interest 
















mission 


ance 




Loss 






True 


Bank 






Am't 


Sum 


Asses- 


Cost 


Par or 


Sum on 


Present 


Face of 






of 


for 


sed 


Price. 


Face 


which 


worth. 


Note. 






Sales 


which 


value 




Value 


Interest 








Base 


or 


Prop- 


of 




of 


is Paid. 








Am't 


erty is 


Prop- 




Stock. 












of 


In- 


erty. 
















Pur- 


sured. 


















chases. 




















Rates 


Rate 


Rate 


Rate 


Rate of 


Rate of 


Rate of 


Rate of 






of 


of 


of 


of 


Premi- 


Interest 


Discount 


Discount 






Com- 


Insur- 


Taxa- 


gam or 


um or 


multi- 


multiplied 


multiplied 




Rate 


mis- 


ance. 


tion. 


loss. 


of Dis- 


plied by 


by Time 


by Time 


02 




sions. 








count. 


Time in 


in Years. 


in Years 


H 














Years. 




plus three 


^ 


















days. 


K] 




Com- 


Pre- 


Tax 


Gain 


Premi- 


Interest. 


Int. on P. 


Int. on face 


'A 




mis- 


mium. 


on 


or loss. 


um or 




W. for 


at computed 


w 


Per- 


sions. 




Prop- 




Dis- 




given time 


rate, or 


1-1 


centage 






erty. 




count. 




and rate : 


Bank Dis- 


w 
















i. e., True 
Discount. 


count. 






Value 






Cost 


Selling 


Princi- 


Face of 








of 






plus 


Price 


pal plus 


Note or 








Goods 






gam or 


at Pre- 


Interest. 


Face of 






Amnt 


bought 

plus 
Com'n. 






Selling 
Price. 


mium. 




Debt. 








Value 






Cost 


Selling 






Face less 






of 






less 


Price 






Bank Dis- 






Sales 






loss, or 


at Dis- 






count, or 




Differ- 


less 






Selling 


count. 






the 




ence 


Com'n, 
or the 
Pro- 
ceeds. 






Price. 








proceeds. 



Teach proportion by direct and indirect ratio. Cause 
and Effect method is a short, practical way of solving 
proportion problems, and may be used. 

Teach square and cube root by objects, blocks, or 
drawings. 

The problems in mensuration should be accompanied 
with diagrams or geometrical forms, the pupils illustrat- 
ing each problem solved. 



ADVANCED DIVISION 93 

The most satisfactory evidence of a pupil's knowledge 
of a problem is his ability to prove it. 

Show how the rule is derived, and insist upon the 
pupil's thoroughly understanding the reason for it before 
he uses it and quotes it as an explanation. 

All work must be neatly and accurately placed upon the 
board, slate, or paper, each necessary step being indicated. 

Have pupils work independently of the text -book and 
of each other. The practice of working merely for the 
answer in the text -book is a waste of time. Pupils must 
learn to think and reason for themselves. Use the prob- 
lems in the text -book, but also many more outside of it. 
Draw upon other arithmetics and your own originality for 
supplementary problems. Require pupils to make prob- 
lems for class use. 

Business Papers. — Notes, bills, receipts, bonds, and 
other business papers should be brought into class, and 
so used that the pupils will have a practical knowledge 
of the principles involved. Let them be written by pupils 
so as to represent actual transactions between members of 
the class. 

Optional or Advanced Work. — Circulating decimals, 
foreign or circular exchange, arithmetical and geometrical 
progression, alligation, annuities, and kindred subjects 
should be passed by in the elementary schools, or at least 
set aside until pupils have mastered the more practical 
parts of arithmetic. 

Mental Arithmetic. — Unless the arithmetic in use pre- 
sents abundant and varied exercises for oral or mental 
work, a separate text -book should be used by this grade. 
The pupils will need the drill the study of mental arithme- 
tic affords in the use of correct mathematical language, 
close and continued reasoning, undivided attention, clear 
and comprehensive thought. Require correct and full so 



,94 OlTTLIJSrES AlfJD METHODS 

lutions. These may frequently be written out. Do not 
allow pupils to write answers in the text -book. This 
always detracts from the value and benefit of the reci- 
tation. Have frequent review tests, using problems not 
found in the text -books, but involving similar conditions. 
In one -room schools, recitations in mental and written 
arithmetic may alternate or may be combined. Few pro- 
grams will afford time for recitations in both the same 
day. 

GEOGRAPHY 

The second or larger book in Geography should be 
taken up and completed in the Fifth Grade. Many of the 
suggestions given under the Fourth Grade will apply here. 
With the advanced book, however, more attention should 
be given to topical outlines, causes and effects as related 
to mathematical and physical geography, commercial re- 
lations, climatic and social conditions. 

In the study of each country, province, or state, let 
an outline something like the following be used in pre- 
paring the lesson and in reciting it : 

Position.— Relative and absolute, latitude and longitude. 

Form and Size. — Natural and political boundaries. 

Natural Features. — Surface, mountains, lakes, rivers. 

Climate. — Temperature and moisture, continental and 
oceanic modifications, amount of rainfall. 

Political. — Divisions, capitals, metropolis, other promi- 
nent cities, form of government, rulers. 

Occupations. — As determined by climate and mineral 
deposits. 

Productions. — Vegetable, animal, mineral, manufac- 
tured. 

Miscellaneous. — Religion, civilization, school system, 
history, noted persons and places, etc. 



ADVANCED DIVISION 95 

Essential and Practical Features. — Make the study 
of geography interesting and practical by making promi- 
nent the following lines : 

Animals. — Study the animals of each continent, taking 
first those which feed upon the vegetation of the continent, 
and afterwards the carnivorous animals. Show that the 
nature of the vegetation determines the kind of animals 
that can live in a country. 

Vegetation. — From a knowledge of previous topics, 
locate on maps the regions where the most favorable con- 
ditions for vegetation exist. Study the vegetation of the 
different continents, with especial reference to those kinds 
which are useful to man for food, clothing or shelter. 
Make maps of the continents, showing where different 
kinds of vegetables may be found. One method of doing 
this is by gumming some part of the plant upon the map 
of the country where it is grown. Make a special study 
of the vegetable products of the United States in this 
way. 

Minerals. — Locate in each continent the regions where 
the useful minerals are found, and tell how and in what 
form each one is obtained. Maps may be made showing 
mineral regions in the same way that the plant maps 
are made. 

Adaptation to Man's Want. — Study each continent 
with reference to its advantages for the abode of man — 
{a) with reference to food materials; (&) to materials for 
clothing ; (c) to shelter ; (d) advantages for transpor- 
tation and exchange of products. 

The Races of Mankind. — Classify the human races, 
giving the abode, the distinguishing characteristics and 
the prevailing religion of each race. Which races are 
the most highly civilized? Which are the barbarous 
races ? The savage races ? 



96 OUTLINES AND METHODS 



s 



Growth of Nations. — Where were the earliest civili- 
zations ? Why were these places best adapted to the 
growth of early civilizations ? Why did primitive men 
live in a warm climate! What was the earliest form of 
government ? How and why were tribes formed ? Nations ? 
Name and define the different kinds of governments found 
in civilized nations. Name and locate the capitals of the 
principal countries of the world and of the states of the 
Union. 

Commerce and Manufactures. — Locate principal water 
routes of travel and commerce, in-eluding oceanic routes, 
navigable rivers and canals. 

Locate the principal shipping ports of each country, 
and tell what products are sent out from and what are 
received at each port. Learn, from a gazetteer or some 
other source, the most important facts connected with each 
of these places. 

Locate the principal lines of railroads in the United 
States, and a few of the most important lines in other 
countries, and locate on them the principal manufacturing 
and commercial cities. This should be done by drawing 
maps and filling in the railroads and cities as they are 
studied. Tell, if you can, the reason for the manufac- 
turing and commercial importance of the cities named. 

Local Geography. — A month or six weeks may be very 
profitably spent upon the thorough and exhaustive study 
of state and county, using and supplementing the usual 
book edition of state geography, with items of local interest 
and value. It is less important that pupils should have a 
comprehensive knowledge of Asia and Africa, than that 
they should know well their own state and county. 

Map Drawing" and Sketching".— Continue rapid map 
sketching and illustrative work in class. Teach some sys- 
tem of map drawing, and have pupils draw a number of 



ADVANCED DIVISION 97 

maps carefully, using their best artistic skill. Make fre- 
quent use of the blackboard in writing outlines, descrip- 
tions, etc. Require written reviews with pen and ink once 
or twice a month. 



PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

Use and complete a common school physiology. Two 
years will ordinarily be found sufficient for this study, 
allowing a month or six weeks for review before grad- 
uation. 

In view of the work done in the preceding grades, 
the pupils should now take up the study of this subject 
by logically arranged outlines. These outlines should be 
frequently reproduced upon the blackboard or tablete and 
made the basis of class work. Attention should be given 
to details, scientific authority, and physiological terms. 
The lessons, however, should be of a practical nature, 
aiming to teach and shape hygienic habits and right 
living. 

From a scientific standpoint teach the sources, forms, 
uses and effects of stimulants and narcotics. The follow- 
ing outline will be suggestive of the scope of such teaching: 
I. Origin of Alcohol— 

(a) Fermentation in cider, wine, ale, beer. Process 

of fermentation. 
(6) Distillation, process; products — brandy, gin, 
whiskey, rum. 
II. Properties of Alcohol — 
(a) A transparent fluid. 
(&) Odorous. 

(c) Has a biting taste. 

(d) Volatile. 

(e) Inflammable. 

G 



98 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

(/) Mixes with most oils. 

(g) Coagulates albumen. 

(Ji) Affinity for oxygen and water. 

(0 Dissolves many resinous substances. 

III. Uses of Alcohol — 

(a) For heating — alcohol lamp. 
(&) For preserving museum specimens, 
(c) In preparing medicines, varnishes, etc. 
{d) Allays inflammation. 

IV. Effects of Alcohol on the Human Body— 

{a) Impairs digestion, 

(&) Absorbs the water of the body. 

(c) Destroys the blood -corpuscles. 

{d) Ruins the blood-vessels. 

(e) Causes fatty degeneration of muscular tissue. 

(/) Paralyzes nerve matter. (A narcotic.) 

{g) Creates and stimulates growing appetite for 
alcohol. 

{h) Causes general physical debility, mental weak- 
ness, and moral degeneracy. 

Prepare similar outline for narcotics. Dwell upon the 
harm which smoking and chewing tobacco have upon 
young people, not only in their physical effects on account 
of the delicacy of the tissues, but also in their mental and 
moral effects. Teach the deceptive tendencies of all opiates. 
Teach that 

Total abstinence is the only safe rule in regard to the 
use of stimulants and narcotics. 

As far as practicable, use experiments to show properties 
and uses of alcohol and opiates. The harmful effects may 
be most forcibly impressed by citing examples of sufferers 
and by means of proper stories. 

Continue the use of blackboard, charts, parts of ani- 



ADVANCED DIVISION 99 

mals, etc. Have pupils make drawings for illustration. 
Drill in tlie use of proper terms. Teach practical hints 
for the sick room, what to do till the doctor comes, nature 
and purpose of medicines, and the probable effects of 
disease in any form. 

Practical Hygiene.— While thus teaching physiology 
as a scientific study, let practical hygiene continue to 
have a prominent place in every lesson and in all the 
pupil's environments. Lay special stress upon the impor- 
tance of correct habits in youth and in preserving youth- 
ful health and vigor. All the equipments of the school- 
room, its lessons, and its very life should invite — nay 
require— the essential conditions of physical well-being. 
A sound body is essential to the highest use, power, and 
destiny of a sound mind. If we would preserve the jewel, 
we must take care of the casket. 



UNITED STATES HISTORY 

Complete Common School History in two years. 
During the last year of the course make a special study 
of Civil Government, national, state and local, and review 
the important parts of History. 

Topical Outlines.— In this division, history should be 
studied by means of well- arranged outlines. These should 
be prepared by the teacher and placed upon the black- 
board for pupils to copy in blank topic -books provided 
for the purpose. Lessons should be prepared and recited 
with the use of these outlines. It may require some time 
and a little direct assistance before the pupils can recite 
topically, and give long and connected statements in their 
own words. The following will indicate the form and 
purpose of such topical arrangement : 



100 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 

1. William Penn and his grant of land. 

2. Reasons for coming to America. 

3. Founding of the colony. 

4. Relations with the Indians. 

5. Form of government. 

6. The " Great Law." 

7. Development of the colony. 

8. Characteristics of settlers. 

Topical Reviews. — Certain subjects may be traced 
through the history, and all the related topics brought 
under one general head, thus : 

HISTORY OF SLAVERY 

1. Introduction at Jamestown — 1619. 

2. Slave labor in the South — Cotton gin. 

3. Ordinance of 1787. 

4. In the Constitution — 1808. 

5. Missouri Compromise — 1820. 

6. Wilmot Proviso — 1846. 

7. Omnibus Bill — 1850. 

8. Fugitive Slave Law — 1850. 

9. Personal Liberty Bills. 

10. Kansas and Nebraska Bill — 1854. 

11. Dred Scott Decision— 1857. 

12. John Brown's Raid— 1859. 

13. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863. 

14. Constitutional Amendment — 1865. 

Accession of Territory, Inventions and Inventors, Indian 
Wars, Treaties, etc., may be similarly outlined and reviewed. 

Continue to make biographical study and reading promi- 
ment in the daily recitation. Pupils must first become 



ADVANCED DIVISION 101 

interested in the lives of historical characters before they 
care to know what was done by them. Around such names 
as Columbus, John Smith, Roger Williams, Franklin, 
Washington, Hamilton, Clay, Webster, Lincoln, Grant, 
Blaine, and Dewey, cluster many of the essential facts 
of American history. 

Reviews. — A short time may be spent at each recitation 
in reviewing the principal points of the preceding lesson 
in such a way as to connect it with the lesson for the day. 
After a section or epoch has been gone over a full reci- 
tation period may be taken for an oral review, to be fol- 
lowed by a written review. 

Historical Readings and Recreations. — History should 
be so taught that pupils will want to read historical books 
for themselves. Make use of any books of reference, biog- 
raphy, or history found in the school -room. Find and 
read historical poems, addresses, and orations in the reader. 
Encourage pupils to use home libraries, magazines, and 
papers, to supplement the text -book recitations. 

Continue the use of patriotic songs, and have selections 
memorized to be recited at stated times. 

Impress upon the pupils the worth and dignity of true 
American citizenship. 

Civil Government. — The essential value of a knowledge 
of the forms and requisites of good government is so ap- 
parent that special prominence should be given to the 
subject in every school in which the pupils are sufficiently 
advanced to appreciate the benefits and the privileges of 
a republican form of government. History properly taught 
is but an evolution of our form of national government. 
To teach only the facts and figures of discoveries and set- 
tlements, struggles and conquests, wars and treaties, is to 
make this study of little genuine value. Its higher pur- 
pose is to teach through these the origin, the develop- 



102 



OUTLINES AND METHODS 



merit and the stability of this government by the peo- 
ple. 

The free public school is the chief source of an en- 
lightened citizenship. It is founded upon the broad prin- 
ciples of a future commonwealth. It is essential, therefore, 
that the boys and girls shall not only develop a spirit 
of loyalty to their country, but that they shall have an in- 
telligent and comprehensive acquaintance with the funda- 
mental principles of a representative government. They 
should be made familiar with the constitution of the United 
States and the constitution of their own state. They need 
to learn the mutual and reciprocal relations in national, 
state and local government. They should, above all, be 
taught to recognize the supremacy of law, and to respect 
the rightful authority in the home, the school, and the 
state. 

In the limited time that may be devoted to the teaching 
of civil government in the elementary school, the follow- 
ing outline may be of value. It should be explained and 
supplemented until the pupils will understand its full scope 
and meaning : 



UNITED STATES 



Branches of Oovernrnent. 



Legislative . 



House of Representatives. 



Senate , 



r Legislative, 
j Executive. 
L Judicial. 

Number, 357. 
By whom Elected? 
Term? 

Qualifications? 
Salary, $5,000. 
. Exclusive Powers? 

Number, 90. 

By whom Elected? 

Term? 

Salary, $5,000. 

Qualifications? 

Exclusive Powers? 



Joint Powers of House and Senate? 



ADVANCED DIVISION 



103 



Executive 



Judicial. 



President and Viee-Pres. 



Cabinet - 

One Supreme Court... 

Nine Circuit Courts 

Sixty District Courts.. 
Five Courts of Claims 



r Term? 

By whom Elected? 

Qualifications? 

Salary, $50,000 and $8,000, respectively. 
. Duties? 
' Secretary of State. 

Secretary of Treasury. 

Secretary of War. 

Secretary of Navy. 

Secretary of Interior. 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

Attorney-General. 

Post m aster-General . 

(Appointed by the President and con- 
firmed by the Senate). Salary, $8,000. 
Duties? 
r Term? 

One Chief Justice. Salary, $10, ,000. 

Eight Associate Justices. Salary, $10,000. 
' Term? 

Two or three Judges in each Circuit. 
Salary, $6,000. 

Term? 

One Judge in each District. Salary, 
$3, .500 to $5,000. 
r Term? 

Five Judges. 
L Salary, $4,500 to $5,000. 



Legislative. 



Executive 



Jtidicial, 



STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA 

r Number, 50. 

Senate \ J.'^^'^'J ^^'^''^ 

Qualifications? 



House. 



Salary, $I,.500 for each regular session. 

Number, 204. 

Term, 2 years. 

Qualifications? 

Salary, $1,500. 



Powers and Duties? 
Governor, Salary, $10,000. 
Lieutenant-Governor, $5,000, 
Secretary of the Commonwealth, $4,000. 
Attorney-General, $.3,500. 
Auditor-General, $4,000. 
State-Treasurer, $5,000. 
Secretary of Internal Affairs, $3,000. 
Adjutant-General, $4,000. 
Superintendent of Public Tngtruction, $4,000. 
L Terms? Qualifications? Duties? 

' A Chief Justice, .$8,500, 



Supreme Court 



Superior Court 



District Courts 



Six Associates, $8,000, 

Term, 21 years. 

Qualifications? 

Sitting at Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and 
Pittsburg. 

Powers? 

Chief Judge, $7,500. 

Six Associates, $7,500. 

Term, 10 years. 

Qualifications? 

Sitting at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Har- 
risburg, Scranton, Williamsport, 

Powers? 

Number of Districts, 40. 

Term, 10 years. 

Qualifications? 

Salary from $4,000 to $7,000. 
. Powers? 



104 



OUTLINES AND METHODS 



THE COUNTY IN PENNSYLVANIA 



Number in the State, 67. 
Relation to State Government ? 
Exclusive rights and privileges ? 

I Common Pleas. 
County or District Courts, combined or J Oyer and Terminer, 
separate 1 Quarter Sessions. 

L Orphans'. 

Judges of the Courts. 

(See District Courts.) 
Clerk of the Courts, 
Prothonotary. 
County Officers \ Recorder of Deeds. 
Register of Wills. 
District Attorney. 
County Solicitor. 
County Commissioners. 

Terms? Duties? Compensation? 

All elected by the people except Mercantile Appraisers, who are appointed by 

County Commissioners, and the Superintendent of Schools, who is elected 

by School Directors. 



Sheriff. 

County Treasurer. 

County Auditors. 

County Surveyor. 

County Cox'oner. 

Directors of the Poor. 

Jury Commissioners. 

Mercantile Appraisers. 

County Superintendent of Schools. 



THE TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT 



Relation to the County and State. 
Powers and privileges in local government. 
Justice of the Peace. 
Constable. 

Six School Directors. 
Supervisors of Roads. 
. Assessors of Taxes. 
Duties of officers, terms of service, 
All elected by the people. 



Township 
Officers 



Tax Collector. 
Auditors. 
Township Clerk. 
Election Officers. 

and compensation? 



THE BOROUGH GOVERNMENT 



Relation to the Township, County and State 
Powers and privileges in local government. 
Chief Burgess or Mayor. 
Six or more Councilmen. 
Tax Collector. 
Assessors of Taxes. 
Six School Directors. 
Street Commissioner. 
. Constable. 
Duties of officers, terms of service, and compensation? 
All elected by the people. 



Borough 

Officers 



Justice of the Peace. 
Treasurer. 
Auditors. 
Town Clerk. 
Election Officers. 



THE CITY GOVERNMENT 



Regulated by special charter. 

Relation to County and State. 

Special prerogatives in local government. 

Classification of Cities. 

Division into wards and precincts. 

Mayor. 

Common Council. 
Select Council. 
City Solicitor. 
Receiver of Taxes. 
City Treasurer. 
City Controller. 
Aldermen. 



City Officers 



School Controllers. 
Superintendent of Schools. 
City Engineer. 
Street Commissioners. 
Police Magistrates. 
Police Officers. 
Health Officers. 



Duties of officers? By whom elected or appointed? Emoluments? 



ADVANCED DIVISION 105 

In the teaching of Civil Government, present to the 
class important items of information in definite form, 
such as the following : 

The revenue of the United States is derived : 

1. From customs, — tariff or duty on imports. 

2. Internal revenue sale of stamps, — taxes on tobacco, distilled 
spirits, beer, etc. 

3. Direct tax. 

4. From public lands. 

5. From receipts of patent -rights, fines, etc. 

The expenses of the Federal Government are : 

1. The principal and interest of the public debt. 

2. Salaries of government officials, employes and representatives. 

3. Construction and maintenance of public buildings and other 
property. 

4. The equipment and maintenance of the army and navy. 

5. The pensions and claims resulting from the wars of the United 
States. 

6. The establishment and support of government institutions, 
museums, scientific investigations, and internal improvements. 

7. Expenses in maintaining the postal service. 

The cities of Pennsylvania are classified as follows : 

First class, having a population of 300,000 or over. 
Second class, having less than 300,000 and more than 100,000. 
Third class, having less than 100,000 and more than 30,000. 
Fourth class, having less than 30,000 and more than 12,000. 
Fifth class, having less than 12,000. 

Frequently present interesting queries and questions for 
class discussion, such as these : 

1. What difference in the meanings of the words "electors," "in- 
habitants," "residents," and "citizens?" 

2. A certain town wishes to construct water works but has no 
money for the purpose. In what two ways may it legally proceed 
to obtain the required funds ? 



106 OUTLINES AND METHODS 

3. How soon and in what way may a foreign immigrant become 
a citizen of the United States ? An elector ? 

4. Why should not a foreign born citizen be elected President of 
the United States ? 

5. Of what practical value to the country is the Signal Service ? 

6. Why should a small state have as many United States Sena- 
tors, but not as many Representatives, as a large state ? 

7. Would the Federal Constitution permit government ownership 
of railroads and telegraph lines ? Would it be a good thing to have 
such ownership ? 

8. How is "Civil Service Reform" opposed to "Rotation in Office ?" 

9. If a man owns land in several townships, can he vote in all of 
them ? If not, where must his vote be east ? 

10. Should the President be elected by popular vote ? 

11. Which affords the more privileges for its citizens — a republic 
like the United States, or a monarchy like England ? 

12. Would it be a wise movement on the part of the general 
government to require every elector to be able to read and write ? 



Literature for Children 

ONE of the fundamental aims in all school work and 
management should be the systematic development 
of a proper taste for pure and good literature. It 
is not so much what pupils learn to know as what they 
live to te that determines the worth of their training and 
shapes their destiny. They need the constant and con- 
scious stimulus of the higher ideals which appeal to them 
through the beautiful and the good in literature. It is the 
teacher's highest, holiest mission to so guide the young 
mind to the realization of its higher self that life may 
be a constant advancement to a higher and a purer and 
a better plane of living. Properly selected material, care- 
fully adapted exercises, and, withal, a loving, sympathetic 
nature, will enable the teacher to open to each boy and 
girl the intellectual pleasures of helpful reading, the 
invigorating fountain of sparkling thought, and the en- 
nobling influence of moral truth and beauty. In the 
development of this line of the teacher's work, three dis- 
tinct yet related features should receive attention in every 
school. 



I— THE STUDY OF SELECTIONS 

In every grade choice extracts and selections from the 
best authors, both in prose and poetry, should be studied, 
memorized, and recited. These should be selected by the 
teacher, and must be adapted to the grade and capacity 
of pupils. Each pupil should commit to memory at least 
one extract or one complete selection each month of the 

(107) 



108 LITEBATUBE FOB CHILBBEN 

term. When thouglitfully and earnestly directed, this line 
of work is most valuable in giving pupils a choice vocabu- 
lary of words and phrases, a high standard of pure Eng- 
lish, an accurate and retentive memory, and a cultivated 
taste for the pure and the good in literature. It is the 
proper basis for general reading and the necessary intro- 
duetion to the special and extended study of literature 
in the higher grades. 

To the few selections here named the teacher may 
readily add such as will be specially adapted to the age 
and grade of the children. Some of the selections should 
be read to the children, and afterwards by them. The 
shorter poems should be memorized. Fables and short 
stories may be reproduced by the children, first orally 
and afterwards in writing. 

Primary Grades 

1. Seven Times One. — Ingelotv. 

2. Little Birdie. — Tennyson. 

3. The Three Bugs. — Carey. 

4. Little Boy Blue. — Field. 

5. The Arrow and the Song. — Longfellow. 

6. Jack -in -the -Pulpit. — WJiittier^s Child Life. 

7. The Wise Fairy. — Carey. 

8. The Village Blacksmith. — Longfellow. 

9. The Child's Dream of a Star. — Dickens. 
10. Hiawatha's Childhood. — Longfellow. 

Intermediate Grades 

1. America. — Smith. 

2. The Barefoot Boy. — Whittier. 

3. The Children's Hour. — Longfellow. 



THE STUDY OF SELECTION'S 109 

4. The Wounded T>di\^j .— Anonymous . 

5. The BviildiQv^.— Longfellow. 

6. Don't You Be Afraid, Boj^\— Carey. 

7. The Planting of the Apple tree.— Br^ati^. 

8. New Year's ^yq.— Tennyson. 

9. The Boys. — Holmes. 

10. The First Snow Yoll.— WhiUier. 



Grammar Grades 

1. Gettysburg AMvq^^.— Lincoln. 

2 . Thanatopsis . — Bryant . 

3. Apostrophe to Water.— >SeZecM. 

4. The Seminole's Defiance.— Po^^m. 

5. The Landing of the Pilgrims.— -ffemaws. 

6. Longing. — Loivell. 

7. One by One. — Proctor. 

8. The American Flag. — Drake. 

9. The Burial of Sir John Moore.— Wb//e 
10. The Building of the ^hii^ .— Longfellow . 

High School Grades 

1. Evangeline. — Longfellow. 

2. The Deserted Village.— 6^oZ^smi^^. 

3. Vision of Sir hsiuntsil.— Lowell. 

4. Maabeth..— Shakespeare. 

5. Essay on Burns.— Carlyle. 

6. Speech on Conciliation With America.— 5«^r^e. 

7. Paradise Lost, Books I and II.— Milton. 

8. Rime of the Ancient Mdir^inQw— Coleridge. 

9. Lady of the Lake.— ^co^^. 
10. Snowbound. — Wliittier. 



II— HOME READING 

Good books constitute one of tlie chief sources of 
knowledge, as well as a most potent force in the build- 
ing of character. Pupils should not only learn to read 
well, but should also acquire a taste for good reading, 
that will lead them, of their own volition, into the rich 
fields of choice literature. To this end, the reading should 
be carefully directed in the school -room and wisely sup- 
plemented in the home. 

In answer to the oft -repeated question. What shall 
children read? we name here a carefully selected list of 
fifty books adapted to the several grades below the high 
school. The books named are all of standard authority, 
recognized merit, and may be readily secured from a public 
library, or at small cost, through any book -dealer. The 
books for the Primary Grades should first be read to, 
and afterwards hy the pupils. 

This list is suggestive, merely, of the class of liter- 
ature to be supplied for home reading. When these 
books have been carefully and thoughtfully read, there 
will be no trouble to select any additional number de- 
sired. 

Primary Grades — illustrated Books. 

1. ^sop's Fables; A Child's Version. — Stickney. 

2. Grandpa's Darlings. — Pansy. 

3. Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales. — SticJcney. 

4. Alice in Wonderland. — Carroll. 

5. Black Beauty. — Sewell. 

6. Adventures of a Brownie. — Craik. 

7. Seven Little Sisters. — Andrews. 

8. Wonder Book for Girls and Boys. — Hawthorne. 

(110) 



HOME BEADINGS 111 



Intermediate Grades 

9. Tanglewood Tales. — Hawthorne. 

10. Robinson Crusoe. — Be Foe. 

11. Washington and His Country. — FisUe. 

12. The Jungle Book. — Kipling. 

13. Autobiography of FranUlin. 

14. In the Boyhood of Lincoln. — Butterworth. 

15. Stories of Old Rome. — Pratt. 

16. Tales from Shakespeare. — Lamb. 

17. Swiss Family Robinson. — Kingston. 

18. Boys of Other Countries. — Taylor. 

19. Hans Brinker. — Bodge. 

20. A Queer little Princess. — Eaton. 

21. Water Babies. — Kingsley. 

22. A Child's History of England. — BicJcens. 

23. King of the Golden River. — RusUn. 

24. Little Men or Little Women.— Alcott. 

25. Little Lord Fauntleroy. — Burnett. 

26. Five Little Peppers. — Sidney. 

Grammar Grades 

27. Christmas Stories. — Bichens. 

28. The Sketch ^ook.— Irving . 

29. Tales of a Grandfather.— >Sfco^f. 

30. Building the Nation. — Coffin. 

31. Vicar oiW^kef^eldi.— Goldsmith. 

32. The House of Seven Gables. — Hawthorne. 

33. Ten Great Events in History. — Johonnot. 

34. The Spy. — Cooper. 

35. Alexander the Great. — Abbott. 

36. Stories from Shakespeare. — Pratt. 



112 LITERATURE FOB CHILDBEN 

37. Views Afoot. — Taylor. 

38. Ramona. — JacJcson. 

39. Pilgrim's Progress. — Bunyan. 

40. Arthur Bonnicastle. — Holland. 

41. The Story of the Iliad. — Brooks. 

42. Winners in Life's Race. — Buckley. 

43. The Man Without a Country.— JTaZe. 

44. Autocrat at the Breakfast Table. — Holmes. 

45. Our Young Folks' Plutarch. — Kaufman. 

46. Tom Brown at Rugby. — Hughes. 

47. Old Curiosity Shop. — Dickens. 

48. Stories of Invention. — Hale. 

49. Among My Books. — Lowell. 

50. The Rhinegold. — Chapin. 

High -School Grade 

A definite course of home reading should be outlined 
for each class with a view to supplementing the regular 
study of Literature. 



Ill — SUPPLEMENTARY READING 

All supplementary reading, properly so called, is under 
the teacher's special direction. School text -books are 
intended for the presentation of fundamental forms and 
facts, truths and principles. A thorough and comprehen- 
sive drill is the essential requisite in every grade. But 
so far as any other books or papers may be helpful in 
the regular text -book study and drill, their use should 
be most earnestly encouraged. Under the teacher's direc- 
tion, pupils should use the public library, books of 
reference, magazines and papers, and thus not only add 
interest, knowledge and value to the study of subjects, 
but at the same time acquire the habit of finding out 
knowledge and a proper method of investigating lines of 
study. As a special aid to teachers in supplementary 
work, many books in literature, history, geography and 
science have been published, and their use in the class- 
room will add very greatly to the interest and value of 
the regular lessons. The following list is suggestive of 
the class of books referred to : 



Primary Grades 

1. Animals Wild and Tame. — Davis. 

2. Some of Our Friends. — Welsh. 

3. Leaves from Nature's Story Book, I and II. — Kelly, 

4. Nature's By -Ways. — Scudder. 

5. The World and Its People, I and 11. — Dunton. 

6. Seaside and Wayside, I and II. — Wright. 

7. Hiawatha Primer. — HolhrooJc. 

8. The Plant Baby and its Friends. — Brown. 

9. Stories of Colonial Children. — Pratt. 

H (113) 



114 LITEBATUBE FOB CHILDBEN 

10. Heart of Oak Books, I and II. — Norton. 

11. Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. — Yonge. 

12. Playtime and Seedtime. — Parker. 

13. Friends in Feathers and Fur. — Jolionnot. 

14. Fairy Stories and Fables. — Baldwin. 

15. Seed Babies. — Morley. 

16. Nature Stories for Youngest Readers. — Bass. 

17. The First Year Nature Reader. — Kingsley. 

18. School Reading by Grades, I, II and III. — Baldwin. 

19. Stepping -Stones to Literature, I, II and III. — Arnold. 

20. Little Nature Studies. — Burt. 

21. Stories of Child Life. — Badlam. 

22. Stories of Insect Life. — Weed. 

23. Legends of the Red Children. — Pratt. 

24. History Stories for Youngest Readers. — Davis. 

25. In Mythland. — Bechwith, 



Intermediate Grades 

1. Ten Boys. — Andrews. 

2. Leaves from Nature's Story Book, III. — Kelly. 

3. American History Stories. — Pratt. 

4. Stories of Industry. — Chase. 

5. Brooks and Brook Basins. — Frye. 

6. Our World Reader, I, II.— Hall. 

7. Stepping -Stones to Literature, IV, V.^ — Arnold. 

8. Stories of American Life and Adventure. — JEJggleston. 

9. Storyland of Stars. — Pratt. 

10. Stories of Columbus, Franklin, and Washington.— 

Pratt. 

11. The World and Its People, III and IV. — Dunton. 

12. Seaside and Wayside, III and IV. — Wright. 

13. Reading by Grades, IV and V. — Baldtvin. 



SUPPLEMENTABY BEADING 115 

14. Stories of Pennsylvania. — Brumbaugh and Walton. 

15. Heart of Oak Books, III and lY.— Norton. 

16. Harold's Rambles. — Trceger. 

17. First Book in American History. — Eggleston. 

18. Old Greek Stories. — Baldwin. 

19. From September to June with Nature. — Warren. 

20. Flowers and Their Friends. — Morley. 

21. Stories of Great Men.—JoJionnot. 

22. Stories from Flowerland. — Pratt. 

23. The Geographical Reader and Primer. — Ouyot. 

24. Stories of Invention. — Chase. 

25. Readings from Nature's Book. — Swinton. 



Grammar Grades 

1. Geographical Readers. — Carpenter. 

2. Ten Great Events in History. — Jolionnot. 

3. Old Stories of the East. — Baldwin. 

4. Seven American Classics. — Swinton. 

5. School Reading by Grades, VI, VII and VIII.- 

Baldwin. 

6. Heart of Oak Books, V and VI. — Norton. 

7. Seaside and Wayside, V and VI. — Wright. 

8. The World and Its People, V and VI .— Dunton. 

9. Geographical Reader. — Buppert. 

10. A Year Among the Trees. — Flagg. 

11. Stories of Europe. — Pratt. 

12. Words of Abraham Lincoln. — Thomas. 

13. Myths of Old Greece, I and II.— Pratt. 

14. Stepping-stones to Literature, VI, VII and VIII.- 

Arnold. 

15. Tales of a Traveler. — Irving. 

16. Washington and His Generals. — Watson. 



116 LITERATURE FOB CHILDBEN 

17. The Story of Pizarro. — Pratt. 

18. Our American Neighbors. — Coe, 

19. Fifteen Decisive Battles. — Creasy. 

20. Legends of Norseland. — Pratt. 

21. Truants of An Old Orchard. — McCool. 

22. Boys of '1^.— Coffin. 

23. Zigzag Journeys. — Buttertvorth . 

24. Flash Lights in American History. — Murphy. 

25. Good Literature, Nos. 1 and 2 for Grammar Grades. 

— Williams. 



High-School Grades 

Standard works for reference in a convenient library 
are quite essential. Supplementary reading should be 
indicated and directed by the department teachers, and 
should be closely related to the class work. 



APPENDIX 



Course of Instruction for Rural Schools 

From the Report of the Committee of Twelve, Submitted to the National Educational 
Association, Minneapolis, Minn., July, 1897 



Course of Instruction for Rural Schools 

Prepared in accordance with the directions of the Committee of 
Twelve, at its meeting in Chicago, November 18, 1896. 

SUGGESTIONS 

[This course of study is arranged in four groups, partly with the 
thought that whenever the schools of a township are gathered at one 
or more central points, the first two may constitute the basis of work 
for the lower, and the last two for the higher room. Whether the 
three-group system explained by Dr. White be used, or the four-group, 
as indicated in this course, must depend very largely upon the size and 
advancement of the school. The principles are the same in either 
case. Henry Sabin.] 

" The course of study is the measuring rod or scale which is used to 
determine at what point in the eight years' ivorJc in the elementary course 
a pupil's worJc has arrived. It should not he used as the Procrustean bed 
on which to stretch the ivorJc of the school in order to give uniformity." 
— (Report of Subcommittee on Instruction and Discipline.) 

It is the aim in this course of instruction to present the most es- 
sential topics in orderly sequence, without any prescription of methods 
of teaching. It can be begun at any age from five to seven ; it can 
be continued, often with profit, to a later age than is here stated. It 
is believed that this course offers every facility for combinations of 
classes, for transfers of pupils, and for any system of alteration. 

This course recognizes the essential elements entering into ac- 
cepted courses of instruction. Each of the four groups comprises 
about two years' work. In these groups there will be divisions into 
sections — as (a), {d) — only when absolutely necessary. Experience 
has shown that, within the age limits of the several groups, the work 

(117) . 



118 APPENDIX 

as laid down can be done. Whenever a pupil is able to do the work 
of the succeeding group he should pass to it. In small schools there 
will be much individual instruction, and in these will seldom be found 
pupils representing all these grades of work. In large schools, with 
one teacher, a skillful teacher can, to a considerable extent, secure 
assistance from the more advanced pupils in certain work with the 
younger, to the mutual advantage of teacher and taught, as well as to 
the school as a whole. This has been done in this country, and is 
done throughout England to-day under the pupil-teacher system. 

Whenever several schools working on such a course are consolidated 
so as to employ two teachers, if one teacher take Groups I and II, 
and the other Groups III and IV, the school is at once graded into 
a primary and a grammar school, and the next step in gradation will 
give one group to each teacher. In this gradation the work of each 
group will be expanded as circumstances allow. If, in the course as 
here laid down, a line of work — as elements of science — must be 
omitted, the time can be added to other subjects ; if in some subjects — 
as elements of science and morals — but few lessons can be given, even 
these lessons, carefully prepared and well taught, will tend to make the 
teacher a better teacher, the pupil a more thoughtful pupil, and to raise 
the standard of the school. 

To carry out such a plan of work as is here outlined, the pupil, as 
he advances, must do more and more for himself under the guidance of 
the teacher, very much to the advantage of the pupil. Thus, in arith- 
metic, there is provision for but two formal recitations per week in 
Group III ; for but one in Group IV. For the rest, the pupil learns to 
do by doing. 

The studies are grouped, each group comprising about two years' 
work : 

READING 

Group I (5-7 years). — {a) First exercises in reading ; from black 
board and chart ; Primer and First Eeader ; and appropriate litera- 
ture. 

(&) First and Second Eeaders, and other reading of similar grade. 

Children should be taught carefully such selections as will awaken 
interest and lead to a desire to read for themselves. In all grades 
children should memorize choice selections appropriate to their age. 

Group II (7-9 years). — {a) Second Reader, and literature of 
similar grade. Fables and folk stories, etc. 



COUBSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 119 

(&) Third Reader, or books of similar grade. Literature as sup- 
plementary readings. 

(See general directions in Group I.) 

Group III (9-11 years). — Fourth Reader at discretion of teacher 
for drill ; the reading should be largely of literature, as supplemen- 
tary reading. 

The drill should be mainly in the reader, and the choice of litera- 
ture as supplementary reading should be such as the pupil can read 
with such ease as to give pleasure, and thus develop a desire to read 
good literature. 

Take great care to cultivate a taste for good reading. Train 
pupils in proper use of the library. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — The reading of good literature, as 
much as can be carefully read. Memorizing of choice selections 
should receive careful attention. Encourage home reading. Ill and 
IV should constitute one class each, and the reading lesson drill 
need not be a daily exercise. From the first give careful attention 
to the cultivation of the speaking voice. 

SPELLING 

Group I (5-7 years). — Taught chiefly in connection with read- 
ing. Oral and written. 

Group II (7-9 years), — Taught chiefly in connection with read- 
ing and other studies of group. Chiefly written. 

Group III (9-11 years). — Words to be selected chiefly from read- 
ing and other studies of group. Chiefly written. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — Words to be selected from studies of 
group, or spelling-book. To be taught chiefly in connection with 
written work. 

WRITING 

Group I (5-7 years).— In this section the child should learn to 
write legibly and neatly, and should form the habit of writing with 
correct position of paper, body, and hand. Use the pen early. 

Group II (7-9 years). — Use simplest forms of letters; train to 
uniformity in spacing between letters and words, and in size and 
height of letters ; in short, in all the qualities which constitute a 
neat and legible written page. Insist upon careful penmanship in 
all written work. 



120 APPENDIX 

Group III (9-11 years). — See Group II. Much practice, to give 
ease and rapidity, never sacrificing legibility and neatness. Much 
writing, to form the habit of easily expressing thought with the 
pen. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — See Group III. Writing in this group 
should be chiefly in composition, in written lessons, and reviews, in 
practice in business forms, and in correspondence. 

LANGUAGE 

Group I (5-7 years). — (a) Conversational lessons on familiar 
experiences and familiar things. Reproduction of stories told by the 
teacher ; invention of stories suggested by pictures, etc. All this will 
be training in observation and thinking as well as in expression. 
Great care is necessary as to choice of words and tones of voice. 

(&) Similar to (a), adding written to oral expression ; instruction 
in correctness of the written forms, as the form of the sentences, the 
use of capitals and punctuation. Memorizing of choice selections. 

Group II (7-9 years). — [a) See (&), Group I. Combination of 
oral and written work. Seek variety in subjects. Base lessons on 
nature lessons, readings, etc. Careful attention to form and use of 
complete sentences in recitation and conversation, to purity of tone, 
clearness of enunciation, correctness of pronunciation in speaking, to 
legibility and neatness in writing. 

{!)) Work of previous years continued and expanded ; oral narra- 
tion, invention (from pictures, etc.), description, with written sen- 
tences from the same ; letter writing, with special attention to the 
general form of the letter ; careful attention to the vocabulary of the 
child. Memorizing of choice selections. 

In much of this work all the group can he taught as oyie class, but 
pupils of very unequal advancement should not he classed together. 

Group III (9-11 years). — See Group 11. Much written work in 
connection with and based upon the school work in its various depart- 
ments. The sentence and its parts ; general classification of words 
into parts of speech according to their use in the sentence, not teach- 
ing definitions nor treating of subdivisions. Careful teaching of the 
construction of the paragraph. Letter writing, with special reference 
to correct forms of social and business letters. Eeadings in literature 
by teacher and by pupil in school and home. Memorizing of choice 
selections long enough to have unity in themselves. 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 121 

Some text-book of language lessons must be used in the rural 
schools, in order that a course of teaching may be carried out 
effectually. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — (a) Letter writing, with special ref- 
erence to subject-matter, to form and expression. 

Much writing in connection with school work, and from outlines 
wrought out by teacher and pupils. Throughout the course careful 
attention should be paid to the correction and enlargement of the 
pupil's vocabulary. 

(&) A course in grammar by rational use of a text-book. Prep- 
aration of plans for themes by the pupil, and writing from them. 

(c) Readings in literature by pupils in school and home. Mem- 
orizing of choice selections long enough to have unity in themselves. 

All written lessons and examinations should be so planned that 
they will be lessons in composition as well. 

By this course of instruction the pupil should now be able to 
express his own thoughts clearly, in correct form, and in well-chosen 
words. 

HISTORY 

Group I (5-7 years). — Short stories, such as will interest the 
child, drawn from biography, history, and travel. Explanation of 
historical pictures. 

The teacher must have at hand appropriate books for the readings 
by herself or by the pupils, hence the necessity for a school library. 

Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. Conversations on current 
events within the knowledge or easy comprehension of the child. 
Conversations, stories, and readings on the lives of eminent historical 
characters, and on the memorable in historical events, such as can be 
easily imagined and comprehended by the child. National manners 
and customs and modes of life, such as can be fully illustrated. All 
this instruction must be made clear and interesting by stories, de- 
scriptions, and illustrations. 

Group III (9-11 years). — See Group II. Extension of course of 
Group II, with wider range, and with more and more readings by the 
pupil. 

Special attention to biography, with oral and written reproduction. 

Readings in United States history. See Group IV. 

In III and IV the course is by readings or text-book study by the 
pupil. 



122 APPENDIX 

Group IV (11-13 years). — {a) Selected epochs of general history, 
with study of leading historical characters ; a course of readings and 
of conversations. Main object to develop a love for historical reading. 

(&) A course of study in United States history. 



GEOGRAPHY 

GrO'Up I (5-7 years). — Familiar conversations and simple pre- 
paratory exercises, serving to excite a spirit of observation in the 
child by leading him to observe the most common phenomena of earth 
and sky. Lessons on relative positions of objects, and distances. 

Points of compass learned from position of the sun, and applied. 
Oral lessons to teach terms of geographical description from the 
child's own observation. Modeling in sand. Stories of travel. Ob- 
ject lessons on products, domestic and foreign. 

These lessons in I and II are of necessity mainly oral until the 
pupil can read fairly well ; then geographical readers and primary 
geographies will give much assistance. 

Group II (7-9 years;.— See Group I. 

Home geography : Observations of phenomena of earth and sky ; 
of the seasons ; of contour, surface, mountain, valley, plain, brook, 
river, pond, soils, vegetation ; in short, of whatever elements of geo- 
graphical study can be brought under the observation of the child, 
that his knowledge of his environment may serve as a basis for his 
future studies of the world. 

Modeling in sand. Notion of map. Extension of study to im- 
mediately related regions. Notion of form of the earth ; the globe. 
Illustrated lessons on races of men, and on the picturesque and 
curious in their customs and manner of life. 

Group III (9-11 years).— See Group II. Continents and great 
land and water masses. North America and the United States, with 
incidental treatment of other parts of the world, in connection with 
history and with current events. 

In all the study of geography, note its correlations with other sub- 
jects, especially with history, literature, language. 

Group IV (11-13 years).— (a) See Group III. Study of foreign 
countries, apportioning the time devoted to them according to their 
relative interest and importance. 

(5) Work of this group to be divided if necessary. 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 123 

The use of modeling, map -drawing, and the various means of illus- 
tration is presupposed throughout the course in geography, and also 
the treatment of physical, mathematical industrial and commercial 
geography, in due order and degree. As the subject will usually be 
taught in the rural school with the aid of test -books in which these 
topics are developed, it is deemed unnecessary to enter into details in 
this statement. 

ARITHMETIC 

Group I (5-7 years). — {a) Instruction at first entirely objective; 
objects gradually discarded as the facts are learned. Numbers, and 
the combinations which form them, up to 9. Throughout the course 
the child must learn through his own perceptions and self-activity. 

(&) Combinations represented by the digits in pairs up to 9 and 9. 
The fundamental operations or computations taught, so far as possible, 
while teaching the combinations ; thus 3-1-1^4, 2-|-2 = 4; 3 and 1 are 
how many? (addition); 3 and how many are 4? (subtraction); two 2's 
are how many? (multiplication); how many 2's in 4 ? (division); etc. 
Fractions %, /^, %. Grouping by tens, to give the fundamental idea 
of the decimal system. (The course in combinations {a) and (&) fol- 
lows the grouping of the decimal system.) Reading and writing of 
numbers to 100. Constant application to concrete problems. 

Number lessons in Group I are mainly oral. 

Simple problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and 
division, using numbers of not more than three places. 

Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. {a) Reading and writing 
three and four place numbers. All the fundamental operations with 
numbers to 1,000. Values and relations of coins in United States 
money. Exercises with fractions /^, 3^, %, /^, Ye. Many concrete 
problems, with much objective illustration. Establish connection be- 
tween arithmetic and the experiences and businesses of farm life by 
simple, interesting, varied problems. Treat one difficulty at a time. 

(&) Writing decimals to one, two, three places ; addition and sub- 
traction of the same. Common fractions with one digit for denom- 
inator. The units of measures and weights objectively taught ; simple 
exercises involving compound numbers. Rapid calculations with small 
numbers and easy problems. Objects for counting and combinations 
in the first steps, and weights and measures illustrating all the tables 
taught, are necessary. The child should weigh and measure for him- 
self before he is questioned in relative values. 



124 APPENDIX 

Group III (9-11 years).— (a) See Group II. CompoTind numbers 
and common fractions, simply treated. 

(&) Decimal fractions and percentage, with common business ap- 
plications in easy problems. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — (a) See Group III. Percenta,ge, witli 
applications to business. 

(6) Eatio and proportion ; simple treatment of square and cube 
root. 

Simple geometrical facts and constructions, with mensuration of 
plane figures. Business forms and simple bookkeeping. 

Throughout the course mental arithmetic should receive careful 
attention. 

DRAWING 

Group I (5-7 years). — Drawing very simple familiar and nature- 
forms of beauty and interest. It is well, also, for the child to represent 
simple colored objects, as apple, lemon, orange, and natural objects 
at hand, according to the season, in solid color, as he sees them. 

Illustrative drawing, by the children, may be frequently intro- 
duced as a means of interest ; in all these exercises great freedom 
should be allowed. 

Free paper cutting, as exercise in memory of proportions, may 
be an occasional exercise. 

Practice on lines of various kinds, as combined in symmetrical 
and pleasing figures, so conducted as constantly to exercise the inven- 
tion and taste of the child. 

Symmetrical arrangement of forms (tablets, seeds, etc.), by 
repetition in a line (borders) and around a center (rosettes) ; by 
selecting objects of different colors this may be made an exercise 
in color as well as form ; occasional use of ruler in drawing lines 
and figures. 

Color. — The spectrum colors, from the prism, should be taught, 
and colors in flowers and other objects should be carefully observed. 

Group II (7-9 years). — During this period of two years, from large 
models, mainly by the visual appearance and not as form studies in 
the usual sense of that term, study the sphere, cube, cylinder ; spheroid, 
prolate and oblate ; square and triangular prism ; pyramid, cone, 
ovoid ; comparing with each other and with objects related to them, 
noting resemblances and differences. 

(Some exercise in drawing these, using soft pencil — black, brown, 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 125 

or blue — and shading a little, avoiding pure outline in picturing 
solids. This work can be postponed to the next group.) 

Paper cutting, to the line of drawings and construction, may be 
used as elementary manual training. 

Draw circle, ellipse, oval, and other good forms with curved out- 
line ; draw leaves, fruits, nuts, and familiar objects of beauty and 
interest ; drill on division of lines, bisection, trisection, quadrisection ; 
judgment of length of lines ; proportions of lines one to another ; 
proportions of figures ; accurate measurement of lines and distances ; 
drawing and estimation of angles of various kinds ; cultivate neatness 
and accuracy in work ; symmetrical arrangements of tablets and 
other forms, as borders, rosettes, and other ornaments, and drawing 
the same ; a part of each lesson should be given to free -arm move- 
ments and to exercises in drawing adapted to give freedom and accu- 
racy in drawing outlines, right-lined or curved. 

Exercise in picturing in color, with water color or colored crayon, 
the various natural objects studied in this group. 

Illustrative drawing. 

Color. — Spectrum colors, hues, tiuts and shades. 

Group III (9-11 years). — Free-hand drawing of plane figures, 
right-lined or curved in outline ; pictures of geometric solids and 
of natural and artificial objects, choosing objects good in proportion 
and outline ; interest will be increased by drawing groups of objects. 
Once a week draw from geometric solids and simple objects in light 
and shade, drawing the shadows very simply. In autumn and spring, 
especially, study plant growth, and draw sprays of leaves and flowers ; 
draw vegetables and fruits ; construction of forms of regular solids 
by drawing, with instruments, cutting, folding, and pasting paper 
and cardboard ; studies in design from natural plant forms, using 
colored crayon or water color if possible. Neatness and accuracy re- 
quired in all work. 

Drill, as in Group II, in free-arm movements and in exercises in 
drawing, practicing especially on circles, spirals, ellipses, ovals, reversed 
curves ; judgment of proportions of lines and figures. 

Commence collection and study of pictures. 

Color. — Mixing colors ; harmony of colors. 

Group IV (11-13 years).— (a) Draw pictures of geometric solids 
and of natural and artificial objects in groups, choosing objects good 
in proportion and outline, giving special attention to arrangement 
of groups. 

(&) Study foreshortening of horizontal and vertical surfaces ; draw 



126 APPENDIX 

pictures of rectangular solids in different positions relative to the 
eye, singly and in groups ; draw books, foliage, vases, etc. ; draw in 
light and shade with simple background, using charcoal, pencil, or 
brush, and paper of size suited to the object ; large paper, nine by 
twelve inches, is desirable for much of this work. 

(a, &) Exercises in drawing shapes of faces of objects — top and 
front — and working drawings with figured dimension lines, with draw- 
ing instruments, using pencil, or pen and ink. (Some of this work 
may be done in Group III.) 

Free-hand drill on curves, shade (or tint) lines, and judgment of 
proportions ; drawing of original designs, using color ; practice in 
use of drawing instruments ; graphic solution of simple problems 
in geometry. 

Color. — See Group III. Add complementary colors. Study color 
in vegetables, flowers, leaves, etc. 

Note. — In drawing, as in the other subjects of this course, the aim 
has been to construct a course which will be helpful to teachers in the 
average rural school under fairly favorable conditions. The order of 
treatment of subjects in each group, and the amount of work done, 
must depend upon the conditions ; in some eases more can be done 
than is here laid down, in many cases not so much. So far as the 
child learns to see clearly and to draw truthfully and well what he 
sees, and as he sees it, good work has been done. He should be 
encouraged to draw much, aside from his lessons and school exercises, 
from whatever is of interest to him. 

(See Remarks on Drawing, on page 130.) 



ELEMENTS OF SCIENCE, OR NATURE STUDY 

GPOUp I (5-7 years). — In the work in nature study, only so much 
should be attempted as can be well done. 

The course in science furnishes an excellent basis for written 
work. 

Simple object lessons, if possible with the object under the eye 
and in the hand of the pupil ; conversational lessons on familiar 
things and on the phenomena of nature, designed to lead him to 
give attention, to observe, to compare, to question, to remember. 
Familiar talks on the human body and the care of it ; on common 
animals known to the child, their distinguishing characteristics and 
habits ; on common flowers and plants, especially food plants and 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 127 

plants of use in the arts, as corn, cotton, etc. ; on stones and metals 
in common use, which the child can learn to recognize. As early as 
possible he should have some care of plants in the schoolhouse or 
the school garden. 

Correlations, especially with language and drawing, with geogra- 
phy and literature, should be kept in mind. 

In nature study, the development of appreciation of and love for 
the beautiful should be made prominent. 

Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. A graduated course of 
nature study following a systematic order of development, but observ- 
ing the child's standpoint as determined by his experience and inter- 
est, studying things, phenomena, processes, properties, and classi- 
fication of things, as animal, vegetable, mineral. Conversational 
lessons on the human body, its principal parts, their movements 
and their uses ; on common animals, so conducted as to arouse 
interest in animal and bird life, especially treating of the uses of 
birds to the farmer, and the necessity for their protection, to stimu- 
late observation regarding their habits, and to cultivate a sentiment 
of kindness in the treatment of them ; on plants and the care of 
them, their parts, as roots, stems, flowers, fruits, seeds, and their 
growth ; on some common minerals and their uses. Lessons on trans- 
formations of material in manufactured articles of common use. 

Group III (9-11 years). — Preceding course so expanded and 
taught as to give clearly some of the more important notions of nat- 
ural science : the human body and the principal functions of life ; 
distinguishing characteristics of animals taught from the study of 
types ; useful and noxious animals, especially birds and insects ; the 
study, in typical specimens, of the principal organs of the plant ; 
plant growth, its order and conditions ; some typical trees and their 
characteristics, value and uses of their wood ; fruit trees best adapted 
to the region ; lessons on soils. 

Every rural school should have a plot of ground prepared as a school 
garden^ in which every pupil may cultivate and study plants. In this 
case the instruction in Groups III and IV would be extended to 
include the preparation of soils for cultivation, the action of fertil- 
izers, the simpler agricultural operations, and the use of garden 
tools. 

Group IV (11-13 years).— Revision and extension of the course 
in Group III, giving more of completeness and of scientific arrange- 
ment and form to the instruction. Cabinets should be collected for 
the school. 



128 APPENDIX 

Physiology. — General review by use of a text-book, giving special 
attention to hygiene and to the effects of stimulants and narcotics. 
Sanitation of school and home. 

Zoology. — Observation of the habits of animals throughout the 
year ; study of available types ; general classifications ; geograph- 
ical distribution. 

Botany. — Essential parts of the plant ; order and conditions of 
growth ; principal groups ; geographical distribution of plants ; uses 
of plants ; study of trees. 

Mineralogy. — General treatment of the structure of the crust of 
the earth ; soils, rocks, fossils, with illustrations from the neigh- 
borhood. 

Excursions and collections by the pupil. 

Physics and Chemistry. — The elementary facts and principles of 
these sciences should be taught by simple experiments. The course 
will vary according to the qualifications of the teacher and the means 
of instruction. Various courses for this instruction have been pre- 
pared, giving methods in detail. 

Only such selections from the above as can be well done. 

MORALS AND CIVICS 

Group I (5-7 years). — Conversations with the children in all the 
school exercises, in which the teacher shall aim to secure the confi- 
dence and familiar participation of the children, and thus to learn 
their characters, so as to guide their tendencies of thought and action. 
Special care regarding children in whom the teacher notices any moral 
defect or vicious tendency. Careful attention to propriety of conduct 
and good manners. 

Group II (7-9 years). — Familiar conversations, and kind indi- 
vidual counsel when needed. Simple stories, parables, fables, treated 
with reference to ideas of right and wrong. (Never make a class 
lesson from cases involving the conduct of the pupil ; these should be 
treated by private admonition.) Practical exercises tending to arouse 
the moral sense of the class, by methods of school discipline, by often 
making the pupil the judge of his own conduct, by training the pupil 
to draw the appropriate lessons from facts observed by himself. 

Group III (9-11 years).— Continue course of Group II, with 
somewhat more of method. Conversations so conducted as to interest 
the pupil and induce the freest participation. Passages from history 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 129 

and literature treated from the point of view of right and wrong. All 
lessons and readings so arranged as to omit no important point of the 
following course : duties to parents, duties to brothers and sisters, 
duties toward employers, duties toward servants and employes, duties 
of the child in school, duties toward the native land and society, 
duties toward one's self, as cleanliness, temperance, economy, self- 
respect, modesty, the Golden Rule ; duties toward God, not a course of 
religious instruction, but emphasizing especially two points : culti- 
vating the feeling and habit of reverence, and a disposition of obedi- 
ence to the laws of God. 

Throughout the whole course kindness to animals should be most 
carefully taught. 

Some work in civics should be taken up in III as well as in IV. 

Group IV (11-13 years). — Instruction along the lines of the pre- 
ceding course, expanding the instruction especially in regard to social 
morality and duties to the native land, treating under this last title 
the organization and principles of our form of government (civics). 

As a preparation, the teacher should carefully read some systematic 
treatises on ethics and civics, and the immediate test of success will 
be the fact that the pupils are heartily interested in the subject. 

Morals and civics furnish an excellent basis for training in speak- 
ing and writing. 



There is here given a scheme for distribution of time, the numbers 
representing the lessons per week : 

I II III IV 

Reading 8 8= 16 3 2 = 5 

Language 4 4=8 4 4 = 8 

Arithmetic 8 8 = 16 2 1 = 3 

Writing 4 4=8 2 = 2 

Drawing 3 3=6 2 2 = 4 

History and Geography 4 4=:8 4 4 = 8 

Morals 1 1=2 1 1 = 2 

Elements of Science ..1. 1=2 2 3 = 5 

Totals in I and II 66 Totals in III and IV, 37 

Giving to lessons in I and II an average of ten minutes each, and 
to those in III and IV an average of twenty minutes each, the total 



130 APPENDIX 

time will be 1,400 minutes for the week. If the daily session be six 
hours, and one hour per day be given to recesses and general school 
business, there remains a surplus of 100 minutes per week at the 
disposal of the teacher, which can be devoted to more instruction 
wherever needed. 

This table is given merely as suggestive of possibilities, and not 
by any means as an ideal adjustment of ratios. In many schools 
much more time can justly be given to subjects here left with but 
little. 

In all the work of this course, it must be borne in mind that in 
the average rural school the complete course will never be in working 
at one time ; that there must be much individual instruction ; that in 
every good rural school there must be very much encouragement of the 
pupil to work by himself under the general guidance and direction of 
the teacher. 

REMARKS ON DRAWING 

Object . of the Course. — To develop correct notions of form as it 
appears, and to represent these notions truthfully by drawing, and to 
cultivate appreciation of beauty of form. 

Materials. — Geometrical solids large enough to be seen from any 
part of the room. These can be found in common objects or made 
from stiff paper or cardboard and tablets showing geometrical figures. 
A prism for teaching color ; sticks one to five inches long for laying 
forms ; paper for cutting and folding ; good drawing pencils, soft and 
medium in hardness ; drawing paper with surface to take pencil well ; 
a good blackboard, and clear, soft crayons, with a few colored crayons ; 
some colored pencils for pupils' use ; water colors ; some charcoal for 
more advanced work ; an ample supply of common objects, leaves, 
flowers, fruits, etc., renewed from day to day from the neighborhood. 

The statements of this course are necessarily brief and general ; it 
is supposed that teachers will be aided in matters of detail by some of 
the published courses in drawing. 

In teaching drawing as a truthful representation of the visual ap- 
pearance of form, there is not necessarily the strict sequence in the use 
of geometric models which there would be in a course of form lessons. 
For lessons in representation of the facts of forms as a basis for con- 
struction in connection with working drawings, see Group IV. 

Some prefer in the early stages to drill only on planes and lines, 
postponing solids to a later period. In the French course in drawing, 



COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 131 

the solid does not appear before our Group III, and then at first the 
drawinc? is a carefully graded course from low relief. 

Those who prefer to work at first entirely from nature can select 
in order such exercises as are in accordance with this theory, and mass 
the technique in the later stages of the course. 

Historic ornament is left to the discretion of the teacher, as in 
most cases limitations of time would exclude it from the rural school. 
Teachers should themselves gain such knowledge of historic ornament 
and of the history of art as is possible. Excellent books treating of 
these subjects can be easily obtained, and the knowledge thus gained 
will enable them to add much of interest and value to their instruc- 
tion. 

For the complete treatment of this course it is desirable that the 
teacher should have had some special preparation for teaching draw- 
ing. In the rural school, selections will often have to be made accord- 
ing to circumstances and the ability of the teacher. There should be 
at least three lessons a week, of twenty minutes each, in Groups I and 
II, and longer lessons in Groups III and IV. Exercises included in 
parentheses are left to the discretion of the teacher. 

In all parts of the coiirse in drawing, care should be taken to culti- 
vate an appreciation of the simple elements of beauty, and to develop 
a love for the beauties of nature and art ; and the school -room should 
be furnished with some classic examples of art for study as well as for 
ornament. In this regard, note the analogy between the study of art 
and the study of literature,. 



•4 



IDEAL EDOCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 

Algebra, 

By Fletcher Durell, A.M., Ph.D., and Edward R. Robbins, A.M., Mathematical 
Masters, the Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, New Jersey. 

I. A Crammar Sohoal ASgebra (Durell & Robbins). This volume closes with 
the subject of Radicals. Pages, 287. Price by mail, 80 cents. For introduction, 64 cts. 
II. A School Algebra (Durell & Robbins). This volume covers the require- 
ments of admission to the Classical Course of Colleges. Pages, 372. By mail, |i.oo. 
For introduction, 80 cents. 

III. A School Algebra Complete (Durell & Robbins). In addition to the matter 
usually contained in a school Algebra, this volume covers the most advanced require- 
ments of Universities and Scientific Schools for admission in Algebra. Pages, 436. 
By mail, $1.25. For introduction, $1.00. 

Spelling, 

By Martin G. Benedict, A.M., Ph.D., Professor in Pedagogy in the Pennsylvania 
State College. 

I. Benedict's Primary Speller. By mail, 20 cents. For introduction, 16 cents. 

II. Benedict's Advanced Speller. By mail, 25 cents. For introduction, 20 cents. 

No better books have been made for securing intelligent and correct use of the 
words of everyday life. 



s 




^ 



Ideal Music Course, 

By J. A. Sprenkel, Supervisor of Music, Bethlehem, Pa. 

I. Primary Ideal Music Book. A beautiful book, with a collection of more 
than one hundred pleasing songs. By mail, 35 cents. For introduction, 28 cents. 

II. Advanced Ideal Music Book, containing a superb collection of songs. By 
mail, 60 cents. For introduction, 48 cents. 

Ideal Music Chart, 

Especially adapted to the Ideal Music Course. Adopted for exclusive use in the 
primary schools of New York city. 40 pages, 32 x 44. Price, $7-50- 

History and Civics, 

Outlines of General History, in the form of questions. By J. R. Flickinger, 
M.A., Principal of State Normal School, Edinboro, Pa. Size, small quarto, 7x8^^. 
Pages, about 200. Binding, flexible vellum. Printed on linen paper. Price, 50 cents. 
For introduction, 40 cents. 

Rash Lights on American History, by D. C. Murphy, Ph.D., Superintendent 
of the Training Department, State Normal School, Slippery Rock, Pa. A supple- 
mentary reader for use in schools. By mail, 65 cents. For introduction, 52 cents. 

The Pennsylvania Citizen, by L. S. Shimmell, Editor of The School Gazette. 
A complete Civil Government of Pennsylvania, containing, also, the essentials of the 
National Government. By mail, 60 cents. For introduction, 48 cents. 

A History of Pennsylvania (in press). By L. S. Shimmell, author of The Penn- 
sylvania Citizen. Distinctly a school History for intermediate and grammar grades. 

Arithmetic, 

A Mental Arithmetic, by Edward Weidenhamer, Ph.B. The most sensible 
in solutions, problems and classifications. Pages, 173. Cloth. Price, 35 cents. For 
introduction, 28 cents. 

Mensuration, by Professor S. W. Furst, a mathematician of original and prac- 
tical ideas. It is the best work on practical measurements that we have ever ex- 
amined. Pages, 72. Bound in cloth. By mail, 50 cents. For introduction, 40 cents. 

Miscellaneous Books, 

A New Life in Education, 90 cts. A History of Education in Pennsylvania, $300. 
Facts in Literature, 30 cents. Final Examination Questions, $1.00. 

The New Manual and Guide for Teachers, 50 cents. 

The School Gazette, 

(bi-weekly). An ideal educational paper for teachers and schools. If paid in 
advance, 75 cents per year. If not in advance, |i.oo. /^ 

R. L. MYERS & CO., Publishers, HARRISBURG, pa. ^ 



JUL 8 1BS9 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS % 



01 



9 82 



883 2 



